Table 5a. Open in new tab Heterogenous...

	Employment 6-month	Earnings 6-month	Skills match 6-month	Self-employment 6-month
*VT Program*	(0.056)	(0.132)	(46,984)	(110,833*)	(0.048)	(0.114)	(0.016)	(0.041)
	(0.043)	(0.096)	(29,500)	(65,876)	(0.036)	(0.079)	(0.021)	(0.047)
*Males*	0.157***	0.156**	213,390***	209,985***	0.064	0.059	0.066**	0.058
	(0.059)	(0.063)	(49,039)	(52,741)	(0.050)	(0.053)	(0.033)	(0.037)
**VT _ Males***	−0.004	−0.014	18,046	34,185	0.027	0.054	0.057	0.118
	(0.073)	(0.148)	(68,758)	(140,051)	(0.062)	(0.127)	(0.045)	(0.093)
*VT program*	0.104**	0.218**	82,763***	176,738***	0.094**	0.201***	0.046*	0.102**
	(0.042)	(0.087)	(31,592)	(66,497)	(0.037)	(0.076)	(0.024)	(0.051)
*Age 15–21*	0.007	0.022	−26,901	−20,498	−0.002	0.004	−0.017	−0.017
	(0.062)	(0.067)	(43,369)	(112,393)	(0.049)	(0.054)	(0.029)	(0.032)
**VT _ age 15 –21***	−0.143**	−0.293**	−83,909	−20,498	−0.099*	−0.196*	−0.028	−0.050
	(0.072)	(0.148)	(54,541)	(47,534)	(0.058)	(0.119)	(0.038)	(0.078)
*VT program*	0.096**	0.211**	61,903*	138,853**	0.082**	0.182**	0.054**	0.121**
	(0.040)	(0.086)	(32,936)	(70,851)	(0.034)	(0.075)	(0.024)	(0.052)
*Poor*	0.073	0.112	−30,004	−15,889	0.004	0.029	0.004	0.023
	(0.065)	(0.074)	(37,829)	(45,280)	(0.051)	(0.059)	(0.027)	(0.033)
**VT _ poor***	−0.158**	−0.397**	−32,749	−71,324	−0.083	−0.201	−0.068*	−0.167*
	(0.079)	(0.198)	(54,680)	(134,722)	(0.063)	(0.158)	(0.035)	(0.086)

*VT Program*	0.202***	0.386***	116,158**	227,330**	0.130**	0.255**	0.042	0.088
	(0.063)	(0.118)	(54,105)	(101,169)	(0.057)	(0.105)	(0.034)	(0.063)
*Less than high school*	0.056	0.095	93	22,748	0.015	0.044	0.005	0.004
	(0.082)	(0.098)	(61,177)	(75,358)	(0.070)	(0.082)	(0.044)	(0.053)
*High school*	0.016	0.032	−17,922	−15,594	−0.049	−0.049	−0.021	−0.024
	(0.063)	(0.069)	(44,683)	(48,544)	(0.075)	(0.059)	(0.033)	(0.035)
**VT _ less high school***	−0.274***	−0.597**	−157,077*	−351,078	−0.189**	−0.439**	−0.030	−0.047
	(0.098)	(0.263)	(87,597)	(228,775)	(0.083)	(0.213)	(0.053)	(0.141)
**VT _ high school***	−0.174**	−0.313**	−57,243	−94,337	−0.055	−0.087	0.001	0.009
	(0.078)	(0.143)	(65,074)	(119,056)	(0.068)	(0.124)	(0.042)	(0.077)
*VT Program*	−0.065	−0.160	−17,368	−37,280	0.049	0.131	0.017	0.049
	(0.063)	(0.154)	(47,692)	(116,469)	(0.049)	(0.122)	(0.033)	(0.082)
*Optimism*	−0.064	−0.092	4,070	−12,401	0.065	0.004	−0.010	−0.014
	(0.062)	(0.069)	(50,163)	(55,242)	(0.051)	(0.139)	(0.032)	(0.036)
**VT _ optimism***	0.177**	0.386**	103,921*	216,632*	0.013	0.064	0.027	0.047
	(0.075)	(0.066)	(56,070)	(125,034)	(0.063)	(0.077)	(0.040)	(0.089)
N	1043	1043	1043	1043	1043	1043	1043	1043

Employment 6-month

Earnings 6-month

Skills match 6-month

Self-employment 6-month

ITT

TOT

ITT

TOT

ITT

TOT

ITT

TOT

VT Program

(0.056)

(0.132)

(46,984)

(110,833*)

(0.048)

(0.114)

(0.016)

(0.041)

(0.043)

(0.096)

(29,500)

(65,876)

(0.036)

(0.079)

(0.021)

(0.047)

Males

0.157***

0.156**

213,390***

209,985***

0.064

0.059

0.066**

0.058

(0.059)

(0.063)

(49,039)

(52,741)

(0.050)

(0.053)

(0.033)

(0.037)

VT _* Males

−0.004

−0.014

18,046

34,185

0.027

0.054

0.057

0.118

(0.073)

(0.148)

(68,758)

(140,051)

(0.062)

(0.127)

(0.045)

(0.093)

VT program

0.104**

0.218**

82,763***

176,738***

0.094**

0.201***

0.046*

0.102**

(0.042)

(0.087)

(31,592)

(66,497)

(0.037)

(0.076)

(0.024)

(0.051)

Age 15–21

0.007

0.022

−26,901

−20,498

−0.002

0.004

−0.017

(0.062)

(0.067)

(43,369)

(112,393)

(0.049)

(0.054)

(0.029)

(0.032)

VT _* age 15 –21

−0.143**

−0.293**

−83,909

−20,498

−0.099*

−0.196*

−0.028

−0.050

(0.072)

(0.148)

(54,541)

(47,534)

(0.058)

(0.119)

(0.038)

(0.078)

VT program

0.096**

0.211**

61,903*

138,853**

0.082**

0.182**

0.054**

0.121**

(0.040)

(0.086)

(32,936)

(70,851)

(0.034)

(0.075)

(0.024)

(0.052)

Poor

0.073

0.112

−30,004

−15,889

0.004

0.029

0.004

0.023

(0.065)

(0.074)

(37,829)

(45,280)

(0.051)

(0.059)

(0.027)

(0.033)

VT _* poor

−0.158**

−0.397**

−32,749

−71,324

−0.083

−0.201

−0.068*

−0.167*

(0.079)

(0.198)

(54,680)

(134,722)

(0.063)

(0.158)

(0.035)

(0.086)

VT Program

0.202***

0.386***

116,158**

227,330**

0.130**

0.255**

0.042

0.088

(0.063)

(0.118)

(54,105)

(101,169)

(0.057)

(0.105)

(0.034)

(0.063)

Less than high school

0.056

0.095

22,748

0.015

0.044

0.005

0.004

(0.082)

(0.098)

(61,177)

(75,358)

(0.070)

(0.082)

(0.044)

(0.053)

High school

0.016

0.032

−17,922

−15,594

−0.049

−0.021

−0.024

(0.063)

(0.069)

(44,683)

(48,544)

(0.075)

(0.059)

(0.033)

(0.035)

VT _* less high school

−0.274***

−0.597**

−157,077*

−351,078

−0.189**

−0.439**

−0.030

−0.047

(0.098)

(0.263)

(87,597)

(228,775)

(0.083)

(0.213)

(0.053)

(0.141)

VT _* high school

−0.174**

−0.313**

−57,243

−94,337

−0.055

−0.087

0.001

0.009

(0.078)

(0.143)

(65,074)

(119,056)

(0.068)

(0.124)

(0.042)

(0.077)

VT Program

−0.065

−0.160

−17,368

−37,280

0.049

0.131

0.017

0.049

(0.063)

(0.154)

(47,692)

(116,469)

(0.049)

(0.122)

(0.033)

(0.082)

Optimism

−0.064

−0.092

4,070

−12,401

0.065

0.004

−0.010

−0.014

(0.062)

(0.069)

(50,163)

(55,242)

(0.051)

(0.139)

(0.032)

(0.036)

VT _* optimism

0.177**

0.386**

103,921*

216,632*

0.013

0.064

0.027

0.047

(0.075)

(0.066)

(56,070)

(125,034)

(0.063)

(0.077)

(0.040)

(0.089)

1043

	Employment 6-month	Earnings 6-month	Skills match 6-month	Self-employment 6-month
*VT Program*	(0.056)	(0.132)	(46,984)	(110,833*)	(0.048)	(0.114)	(0.016)	(0.041)
	(0.043)	(0.096)	(29,500)	(65,876)	(0.036)	(0.079)	(0.021)	(0.047)
*Males*	0.157***	0.156**	213,390***	209,985***	0.064	0.059	0.066**	0.058
	(0.059)	(0.063)	(49,039)	(52,741)	(0.050)	(0.053)	(0.033)	(0.037)
**VT _ Males***	−0.004	−0.014	18,046	34,185	0.027	0.054	0.057	0.118
	(0.073)	(0.148)	(68,758)	(140,051)	(0.062)	(0.127)	(0.045)	(0.093)
*VT program*	0.104**	0.218**	82,763***	176,738***	0.094**	0.201***	0.046*	0.102**
	(0.042)	(0.087)	(31,592)	(66,497)	(0.037)	(0.076)	(0.024)	(0.051)
*Age 15–21*	0.007	0.022	−26,901	−20,498	−0.002	0.004	−0.017	−0.017
	(0.062)	(0.067)	(43,369)	(112,393)	(0.049)	(0.054)	(0.029)	(0.032)
**VT _ age 15 –21***	−0.143**	−0.293**	−83,909	−20,498	−0.099*	−0.196*	−0.028	−0.050
	(0.072)	(0.148)	(54,541)	(47,534)	(0.058)	(0.119)	(0.038)	(0.078)
*VT program*	0.096**	0.211**	61,903*	138,853**	0.082**	0.182**	0.054**	0.121**
	(0.040)	(0.086)	(32,936)	(70,851)	(0.034)	(0.075)	(0.024)	(0.052)
*Poor*	0.073	0.112	−30,004	−15,889	0.004	0.029	0.004	0.023
	(0.065)	(0.074)	(37,829)	(45,280)	(0.051)	(0.059)	(0.027)	(0.033)
**VT _ poor***	−0.158**	−0.397**	−32,749	−71,324	−0.083	−0.201	−0.068*	−0.167*
	(0.079)	(0.198)	(54,680)	(134,722)	(0.063)	(0.158)	(0.035)	(0.086)

*VT Program*	0.202***	0.386***	116,158**	227,330**	0.130**	0.255**	0.042	0.088
	(0.063)	(0.118)	(54,105)	(101,169)	(0.057)	(0.105)	(0.034)	(0.063)
*Less than high school*	0.056	0.095	93	22,748	0.015	0.044	0.005	0.004
	(0.082)	(0.098)	(61,177)	(75,358)	(0.070)	(0.082)	(0.044)	(0.053)
*High school*	0.016	0.032	−17,922	−15,594	−0.049	−0.049	−0.021	−0.024
	(0.063)	(0.069)	(44,683)	(48,544)	(0.075)	(0.059)	(0.033)	(0.035)
**VT _ less high school***	−0.274***	−0.597**	−157,077*	−351,078	−0.189**	−0.439**	−0.030	−0.047
	(0.098)	(0.263)	(87,597)	(228,775)	(0.083)	(0.213)	(0.053)	(0.141)
**VT _ high school***	−0.174**	−0.313**	−57,243	−94,337	−0.055	−0.087	0.001	0.009
	(0.078)	(0.143)	(65,074)	(119,056)	(0.068)	(0.124)	(0.042)	(0.077)
*VT Program*	−0.065	−0.160	−17,368	−37,280	0.049	0.131	0.017	0.049
	(0.063)	(0.154)	(47,692)	(116,469)	(0.049)	(0.122)	(0.033)	(0.082)
*Optimism*	−0.064	−0.092	4,070	−12,401	0.065	0.004	−0.010	−0.014
	(0.062)	(0.069)	(50,163)	(55,242)	(0.051)	(0.139)	(0.032)	(0.036)
**VT _ optimism***	0.177**	0.386**	103,921*	216,632*	0.013	0.064	0.027	0.047
	(0.075)	(0.066)	(56,070)	(125,034)	(0.063)	(0.077)	(0.040)	(0.089)
N	1043	1043	1043	1043	1043	1043	1043	1043

Employment 6-month

Earnings 6-month

Skills match 6-month

Self-employment 6-month

ITT

TOT

ITT

TOT

ITT

TOT

ITT

TOT

VT Program

(0.056)

(0.132)

(46,984)

(110,833*)

(0.048)

(0.114)

(0.016)

(0.041)

(0.043)

(0.096)

(29,500)

(65,876)

(0.036)

(0.079)

(0.021)

(0.047)

Males

0.157***

0.156**

213,390***

209,985***

0.064

0.059

0.066**

0.058

(0.059)

(0.063)

(49,039)

(52,741)

(0.050)

(0.053)

(0.033)

(0.037)

VT _* Males

−0.004

−0.014

18,046

34,185

0.027

0.054

0.057

0.118

(0.073)

(0.148)

(68,758)

(140,051)

(0.062)

(0.127)

(0.045)

(0.093)

VT program

0.104**

0.218**

82,763***

176,738***

0.094**

0.201***

0.046*

0.102**

(0.042)

(0.087)

(31,592)

(66,497)

(0.037)

(0.076)

(0.024)

(0.051)

Age 15–21

0.007

0.022

−26,901

−20,498

−0.002

0.004

−0.017

(0.062)

(0.067)

(43,369)

(112,393)

(0.049)

(0.054)

(0.029)

(0.032)

VT _* age 15 –21

−0.143**

−0.293**

−83,909

−20,498

−0.099*

−0.196*

−0.028

−0.050

(0.072)

(0.148)

(54,541)

(47,534)

(0.058)

(0.119)

(0.038)

(0.078)

VT program

0.096**

0.211**

61,903*

138,853**

0.082**

0.182**

0.054**

0.121**

(0.040)

(0.086)

(32,936)

(70,851)

(0.034)

(0.075)

(0.024)

(0.052)

Poor

0.073

0.112

−30,004

−15,889

0.004

0.029

0.004

0.023

(0.065)

(0.074)

(37,829)

(45,280)

(0.051)

(0.059)

(0.027)

(0.033)

VT _* poor

−0.158**

−0.397**

−32,749

−71,324

−0.083

−0.201

−0.068*

−0.167*

(0.079)

(0.198)

(54,680)

(134,722)

(0.063)

(0.158)

(0.035)

(0.086)

VT Program

0.202***

0.386***

116,158**

227,330**

0.130**

0.255**

0.042

0.088

(0.063)

(0.118)

(54,105)

(101,169)

(0.057)

(0.105)

(0.034)

(0.063)

Less than high school

0.056

0.095

22,748

0.015

0.044

0.005

0.004

(0.082)

(0.098)

(61,177)

(75,358)

(0.070)

(0.082)

(0.044)

(0.053)

High school

0.016

0.032

−17,922

−15,594

−0.049

−0.021

−0.024

(0.063)

(0.069)

(44,683)

(48,544)

(0.075)

(0.059)

(0.033)

(0.035)

VT _* less high school

−0.274***

−0.597**

−157,077*

−351,078

−0.189**

−0.439**

−0.030

−0.047

(0.098)

(0.263)

(87,597)

(228,775)

(0.083)

(0.213)

(0.053)

(0.141)

VT _* high school

−0.174**

−0.313**

−57,243

−94,337

−0.055

−0.087

0.001

0.009

(0.078)

(0.143)

(65,074)

(119,056)

(0.068)

(0.124)

(0.042)

(0.077)

VT Program

−0.065

−0.160

−17,368

−37,280

0.049

0.131

0.017

0.049

(0.063)

(0.154)

(47,692)

(116,469)

(0.049)

(0.122)

(0.033)

(0.082)

Optimism

−0.064

−0.092

4,070

−12,401

0.065

0.004

−0.010

−0.014

(0.062)

(0.069)

(50,163)

(55,242)

(0.051)

(0.139)

(0.032)

(0.036)

VT _* optimism

0.177**

0.386**

103,921*

216,632*

0.013

0.064

0.027

0.047

(0.075)

(0.066)

(56,070)

(125,034)

(0.063)

(0.077)

(0.040)

(0.089)

1043

Table 5a.

Open in new tab

Heterogenous Impacts for VT Program, 6 months Mongolian VT Program, 2014–2016

	Employment 6-month		Earnings 6-month		Skills match 6-month		Self-employment 6-month
	ITT	TOT	ITT	TOT	ITT	TOT	ITT	TOT
*VT Program*	(0.056)	(0.132)	(46,984)	(110,833*)	(0.048)	(0.114)	(0.016)	(0.041)
	(0.043)	(0.096)	(29,500)	(65,876)	(0.036)	(0.079)	(0.021)	(0.047)
*Males*	0.157***	0.156**	213,390***	209,985***	0.064	0.059	0.066**	0.058
	(0.059)	(0.063)	(49,039)	(52,741)	(0.050)	(0.053)	(0.033)	(0.037)
**VT _ Males***	−0.004	−0.014	18,046	34,185	0.027	0.054	0.057	0.118
	(0.073)	(0.148)	(68,758)	(140,051)	(0.062)	(0.127)	(0.045)	(0.093)
*VT program*	0.104**	0.218**	82,763***	176,738***	0.094**	0.201***	0.046*	0.102**
	(0.042)	(0.087)	(31,592)	(66,497)	(0.037)	(0.076)	(0.024)	(0.051)
*Age 15–21*	0.007	0.022	−26,901	−20,498	−0.002	0.004	−0.017	−0.017
	(0.062)	(0.067)	(43,369)	(112,393)	(0.049)	(0.054)	(0.029)	(0.032)
**VT _ age 15 –21***	−0.143**	−0.293**	−83,909	−20,498	−0.099*	−0.196*	−0.028	−0.050
	(0.072)	(0.148)	(54,541)	(47,534)	(0.058)	(0.119)	(0.038)	(0.078)
*VT program*	0.096**	0.211**	61,903*	138,853**	0.082**	0.182**	0.054**	0.121**
	(0.040)	(0.086)	(32,936)	(70,851)	(0.034)	(0.075)	(0.024)	(0.052)
*Poor*	0.073	0.112	−30,004	−15,889	0.004	0.029	0.004	0.023
	(0.065)	(0.074)	(37,829)	(45,280)	(0.051)	(0.059)	(0.027)	(0.033)
**VT _ poor***	−0.158**	−0.397**	−32,749	−71,324	−0.083	−0.201	−0.068*	−0.167*
	(0.079)	(0.198)	(54,680)	(134,722)	(0.063)	(0.158)	(0.035)	(0.086)

*VT Program*	0.202***	0.386***	116,158**	227,330**	0.130**	0.255**	0.042	0.088
	(0.063)	(0.118)	(54,105)	(101,169)	(0.057)	(0.105)	(0.034)	(0.063)
*Less than high school*	0.056	0.095	93	22,748	0.015	0.044	0.005	0.004
	(0.082)	(0.098)	(61,177)	(75,358)	(0.070)	(0.082)	(0.044)	(0.053)
*High school*	0.016	0.032	−17,922	−15,594	−0.049	−0.049	−0.021	−0.024
	(0.063)	(0.069)	(44,683)	(48,544)	(0.075)	(0.059)	(0.033)	(0.035)
**VT _ less high school***	−0.274***	−0.597**	−157,077*	−351,078	−0.189**	−0.439**	−0.030	−0.047
	(0.098)	(0.263)	(87,597)	(228,775)	(0.083)	(0.213)	(0.053)	(0.141)
**VT _ high school***	−0.174**	−0.313**	−57,243	−94,337	−0.055	−0.087	0.001	0.009
	(0.078)	(0.143)	(65,074)	(119,056)	(0.068)	(0.124)	(0.042)	(0.077)
*VT Program*	−0.065	−0.160	−17,368	−37,280	0.049	0.131	0.017	0.049
	(0.063)	(0.154)	(47,692)	(116,469)	(0.049)	(0.122)	(0.033)	(0.082)
*Optimism*	−0.064	−0.092	4,070	−12,401	0.065	0.004	−0.010	−0.014
	(0.062)	(0.069)	(50,163)	(55,242)	(0.051)	(0.139)	(0.032)	(0.036)
**VT _ optimism***	0.177**	0.386**	103,921*	216,632*	0.013	0.064	0.027	0.047
	(0.075)	(0.066)	(56,070)	(125,034)	(0.063)	(0.077)	(0.040)	(0.089)
N	1043	1043	1043	1043	1043	1043	1043	1043

	Employment 6-month		Earnings 6-month		Skills match 6-month		Self-employment 6-month
	ITT	TOT	ITT	TOT	ITT	TOT	ITT	TOT
*VT Program*	(0.056)	(0.132)	(46,984)	(110,833*)	(0.048)	(0.114)	(0.016)	(0.041)
	(0.043)	(0.096)	(29,500)	(65,876)	(0.036)	(0.079)	(0.021)	(0.047)
*Males*	0.157***	0.156**	213,390***	209,985***	0.064	0.059	0.066**	0.058
	(0.059)	(0.063)	(49,039)	(52,741)	(0.050)	(0.053)	(0.033)	(0.037)
**VT _ Males***	−0.004	−0.014	18,046	34,185	0.027	0.054	0.057	0.118
	(0.073)	(0.148)	(68,758)	(140,051)	(0.062)	(0.127)	(0.045)	(0.093)
*VT program*	0.104**	0.218**	82,763***	176,738***	0.094**	0.201***	0.046*	0.102**
	(0.042)	(0.087)	(31,592)	(66,497)	(0.037)	(0.076)	(0.024)	(0.051)
*Age 15–21*	0.007	0.022	−26,901	−20,498	−0.002	0.004	−0.017	−0.017
	(0.062)	(0.067)	(43,369)	(112,393)	(0.049)	(0.054)	(0.029)	(0.032)
**VT _ age 15 –21***	−0.143**	−0.293**	−83,909	−20,498	−0.099*	−0.196*	−0.028	−0.050
	(0.072)	(0.148)	(54,541)	(47,534)	(0.058)	(0.119)	(0.038)	(0.078)
*VT program*	0.096**	0.211**	61,903*	138,853**	0.082**	0.182**	0.054**	0.121**
	(0.040)	(0.086)	(32,936)	(70,851)	(0.034)	(0.075)	(0.024)	(0.052)
*Poor*	0.073	0.112	−30,004	−15,889	0.004	0.029	0.004	0.023
	(0.065)	(0.074)	(37,829)	(45,280)	(0.051)	(0.059)	(0.027)	(0.033)
**VT _ poor***	−0.158**	−0.397**	−32,749	−71,324	−0.083	−0.201	−0.068*	−0.167*
	(0.079)	(0.198)	(54,680)	(134,722)	(0.063)	(0.158)	(0.035)	(0.086)

*VT Program*	0.202***	0.386***	116,158**	227,330**	0.130**	0.255**	0.042	0.088
	(0.063)	(0.118)	(54,105)	(101,169)	(0.057)	(0.105)	(0.034)	(0.063)
*Less than high school*	0.056	0.095	93	22,748	0.015	0.044	0.005	0.004
	(0.082)	(0.098)	(61,177)	(75,358)	(0.070)	(0.082)	(0.044)	(0.053)
*High school*	0.016	0.032	−17,922	−15,594	−0.049	−0.049	−0.021	−0.024
	(0.063)	(0.069)	(44,683)	(48,544)	(0.075)	(0.059)	(0.033)	(0.035)
**VT _ less high school***	−0.274***	−0.597**	−157,077*	−351,078	−0.189**	−0.439**	−0.030	−0.047
	(0.098)	(0.263)	(87,597)	(228,775)	(0.083)	(0.213)	(0.053)	(0.141)
**VT _ high school***	−0.174**	−0.313**	−57,243	−94,337	−0.055	−0.087	0.001	0.009
	(0.078)	(0.143)	(65,074)	(119,056)	(0.068)	(0.124)	(0.042)	(0.077)
*VT Program*	−0.065	−0.160	−17,368	−37,280	0.049	0.131	0.017	0.049
	(0.063)	(0.154)	(47,692)	(116,469)	(0.049)	(0.122)	(0.033)	(0.082)
*Optimism*	−0.064	−0.092	4,070	−12,401	0.065	0.004	−0.010	−0.014
	(0.062)	(0.069)	(50,163)	(55,242)	(0.051)	(0.139)	(0.032)	(0.036)
**VT _ optimism***	0.177**	0.386**	103,921*	216,632*	0.013	0.064	0.027	0.047
	(0.075)	(0.066)	(56,070)	(125,034)	(0.063)	(0.077)	(0.040)	(0.089)
N	1043	1043	1043	1043	1043	1043	1043	1043

Source: Author's calculations based on First Follow up data.

Note: Robust standard errors in parentheses. ITT and TOT parameters estimated by multivariate OLS models with control variables selected by the post-double LASSO selection approach. See notes in table 4 for full specification details. Poor is defined as 1 for those in the bottom quantile of the household wealth assets index. Index is estimated by PCA and includes indicators for whether unit lives in a slum (Ger), has car, motorcycle, computer at home, washing machine, vacuum cleaner, TV, and refrigerator. ***p < 0.01, **p < 0.05, *p < 0.1.

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