Table 6. Open in new tab Populist...

RHS variables	$Polarization index : δ$ = Ability to make ends meet	$Polarization index : δ$ = Deprivation index
Polarization index (⁠ $p_{i t}^{s}$ ⁠)	1.834***	1.464**	2.616***	2.188***	1.364***	1.338**	1.784***	0.974**
	(0.539)	(0.589)	(0.464)	(0.367)	(0.501)	(0.526)	(0.460)	(0.399)
Δ Immigration stock (⁠ $Δ m_{i t}$ ⁠)	0.150**	0.087	0.271***	0.114***	0.183**	0.110	0.304***	0.170***
	(0.063)	(0.069)	(0.055)	(0.043)	(0.074)	(0.078)	(0.068)	(0.059)
Covariates and Controls
Urban population	−0.192***	0.019	−0.102***	−0.074***	−0.183***	0.022	−0.090**	−0.069**
	(0.038)	(0.041)	(0.032)	(0.026)	(0.041)	(0.043)	(0.037)	(0.032)
GDP per capita	−0.058***	0.003	0.013*	−0.031***	−0.056***	0.008	0.019**	−0.035***
	(0.009)	(0.010)	(0.008)	(0.006)	(0.010)	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.008)
Δ GDP per capita	−0.250***	−0.265***	0.090	−0.059	−0.280***	−0.280***	0.068	−0.081
	(0.069)	(0.075)	(0.059)	(0.047)	(0.076)	(0.080)	(0.070)	(0.060)
European regions
Central Western	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.
Southern	−0.081*	0.026	−0.025	0.021	−0.073	0.034	−0.005	0.031
	(0.046)	(0.051)	(0.040)	(0.031)	(0.049)	(0.051)	(0.045)	(0.039)
Eastern	0.032	0.197***	0.076	0.004	0.032	0.199***	0.073	0.001
	(0.064)	(0.070)	(0.055)	(0.044)	(0.069)	(0.073)	(0.063)	(0.055)
Northern	−0.034	−0.044	0.005	−0.048*	−0.052	−0.054	−0.021	−0.075**
	(0.038)	(0.042)	(0.033)	(0.026)	(0.040)	(0.042)	(0.037)	(0.032)
Constant	0.697***	0.443***	0.390***	0.462***	0.687***	0.404***	0.376***	0.502***
	(0.059)	(0.064)	(0.051)	(0.040)	(0.071)	(0.075)	(0.065)	(0.057)
n	157	157	157	157	152	152	152	152
R²	0.770	0.498	0.414	0.829	0.737	0.475	0.245	0.733
C-D Wald F-statistic	16.53	16.53	16.53	16.53	12.50	12.50	12.50	12.50
Sargan test	1.052	0.007	0.850	7.473***	0.420	0.010	2.235	1.095
p	0.305	0.933	0.357	0.006	0.517	0.919	0.135	0.295

RHS variables

Polarization index : δ

= Ability to make ends meet

Polarization index : δ

= Deprivation index

Distrust of institutions

Anti-immigration

Authoritarianism

Distrust of people

Distrust of institutions

Anti-immigration

Authoritarianism

Distrust of people

Polarization index (⁠

p_{i t}^{s}

⁠)

1.834***

1.464**

2.616***

2.188***

1.364***

1.338**

1.784***

0.974**

(0.539)

(0.589)

(0.464)

(0.367)

(0.501)

(0.526)

(0.460)

(0.399)

Δ Immigration stock (⁠

Δ m_{i t}

⁠)

0.150**

0.087

0.271***

0.114***

0.183**

0.110

0.304***

0.170***

(0.063)

(0.069)

(0.055)

(0.043)

(0.074)

(0.078)

(0.068)

(0.059)

Covariates and Controls

Urban population

−0.192***

0.019

−0.102***

−0.074***

−0.183***

0.022

−0.090**

−0.069**

(0.038)

(0.041)

(0.032)

(0.026)

(0.041)

(0.043)

(0.037)

(0.032)

GDP per capita

−0.058***

0.003

0.013*

−0.031***

−0.056***

0.008

0.019**

−0.035***

(0.009)

(0.010)

(0.008)

(0.006)

(0.010)

(0.011)

(0.010)

(0.008)

Δ GDP per capita

−0.250***

−0.265***

0.090

−0.059

−0.280***

0.068

−0.081

(0.069)

(0.075)

(0.059)

(0.047)

(0.076)

(0.080)

(0.070)

(0.060)

European regions

Central Western

ref.

Southern

−0.081*

0.026

−0.025

0.021

−0.073

0.034

−0.005

0.031

(0.046)

(0.051)

(0.040)

(0.031)

(0.049)

(0.051)

(0.045)

(0.039)

Eastern

0.032

0.197***

0.076

0.004

0.032

0.199***

0.073

0.001

(0.064)

(0.070)

(0.055)

(0.044)

(0.069)

(0.073)

(0.063)

(0.055)

Northern

−0.034

−0.044

0.005

−0.048*

−0.052

−0.054

−0.021

−0.075**

(0.038)

(0.042)

(0.033)

(0.026)

(0.040)

(0.042)

(0.037)

(0.032)

Constant

0.697***

0.443***

0.390***

0.462***

0.687***

0.404***

0.376***

0.502***

(0.059)

(0.064)

(0.051)

(0.040)

(0.071)

(0.075)

(0.065)

(0.057)

157

152

R²

0.770

0.498

0.414

0.829

0.737

0.475

0.245

0.733

C-D Wald F-statistic

16.53

12.50

Sargan test

1.052

0.007

0.850

7.473***

0.420

0.010

2.235

1.095

0.305

0.933

0.357

0.006

0.517

0.919

0.135

0.295

RHS variables	$Polarization index : δ$ = Ability to make ends meet	$Polarization index : δ$ = Deprivation index
Polarization index (⁠ $p_{i t}^{s}$ ⁠)	1.834***	1.464**	2.616***	2.188***	1.364***	1.338**	1.784***	0.974**
	(0.539)	(0.589)	(0.464)	(0.367)	(0.501)	(0.526)	(0.460)	(0.399)
Δ Immigration stock (⁠ $Δ m_{i t}$ ⁠)	0.150**	0.087	0.271***	0.114***	0.183**	0.110	0.304***	0.170***
	(0.063)	(0.069)	(0.055)	(0.043)	(0.074)	(0.078)	(0.068)	(0.059)
Covariates and Controls
Urban population	−0.192***	0.019	−0.102***	−0.074***	−0.183***	0.022	−0.090**	−0.069**
	(0.038)	(0.041)	(0.032)	(0.026)	(0.041)	(0.043)	(0.037)	(0.032)
GDP per capita	−0.058***	0.003	0.013*	−0.031***	−0.056***	0.008	0.019**	−0.035***
	(0.009)	(0.010)	(0.008)	(0.006)	(0.010)	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.008)
Δ GDP per capita	−0.250***	−0.265***	0.090	−0.059	−0.280***	−0.280***	0.068	−0.081
	(0.069)	(0.075)	(0.059)	(0.047)	(0.076)	(0.080)	(0.070)	(0.060)
European regions
Central Western	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.
Southern	−0.081*	0.026	−0.025	0.021	−0.073	0.034	−0.005	0.031
	(0.046)	(0.051)	(0.040)	(0.031)	(0.049)	(0.051)	(0.045)	(0.039)
Eastern	0.032	0.197***	0.076	0.004	0.032	0.199***	0.073	0.001
	(0.064)	(0.070)	(0.055)	(0.044)	(0.069)	(0.073)	(0.063)	(0.055)
Northern	−0.034	−0.044	0.005	−0.048*	−0.052	−0.054	−0.021	−0.075**
	(0.038)	(0.042)	(0.033)	(0.026)	(0.040)	(0.042)	(0.037)	(0.032)
Constant	0.697***	0.443***	0.390***	0.462***	0.687***	0.404***	0.376***	0.502***
	(0.059)	(0.064)	(0.051)	(0.040)	(0.071)	(0.075)	(0.065)	(0.057)
n	157	157	157	157	152	152	152	152
R²	0.770	0.498	0.414	0.829	0.737	0.475	0.245	0.733
C-D Wald F-statistic	16.53	16.53	16.53	16.53	12.50	12.50	12.50	12.50
Sargan test	1.052	0.007	0.850	7.473***	0.420	0.010	2.235	1.095
p	0.305	0.933	0.357	0.006	0.517	0.919	0.135	0.295

Table 6.

Open in new tab

Populist attitudes, polarization, and covariates—IV-2SLS regressions

RHS variables	$Polarization index : δ$ = Ability to make ends meet				$Polarization index : δ$ = Deprivation index
RHS variables	Distrust of institutions	Anti-immigration	Authoritarianism	Distrust of people	Distrust of institutions	Anti-immigration	Authoritarianism	Distrust of people
Polarization index (⁠ $p_{i t}^{s}$ ⁠)	1.834***	1.464**	2.616***	2.188***	1.364***	1.338**	1.784***	0.974**
	(0.539)	(0.589)	(0.464)	(0.367)	(0.501)	(0.526)	(0.460)	(0.399)
Δ Immigration stock (⁠ $Δ m_{i t}$ ⁠)	0.150**	0.087	0.271***	0.114***	0.183**	0.110	0.304***	0.170***
	(0.063)	(0.069)	(0.055)	(0.043)	(0.074)	(0.078)	(0.068)	(0.059)
Covariates and Controls
Urban population	−0.192***	0.019	−0.102***	−0.074***	−0.183***	0.022	−0.090**	−0.069**
	(0.038)	(0.041)	(0.032)	(0.026)	(0.041)	(0.043)	(0.037)	(0.032)
GDP per capita	−0.058***	0.003	0.013*	−0.031***	−0.056***	0.008	0.019**	−0.035***
	(0.009)	(0.010)	(0.008)	(0.006)	(0.010)	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.008)
Δ GDP per capita	−0.250***	−0.265***	0.090	−0.059	−0.280***	−0.280***	0.068	−0.081
	(0.069)	(0.075)	(0.059)	(0.047)	(0.076)	(0.080)	(0.070)	(0.060)
European regions
Central Western	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.
Southern	−0.081*	0.026	−0.025	0.021	−0.073	0.034	−0.005	0.031
	(0.046)	(0.051)	(0.040)	(0.031)	(0.049)	(0.051)	(0.045)	(0.039)
Eastern	0.032	0.197***	0.076	0.004	0.032	0.199***	0.073	0.001
	(0.064)	(0.070)	(0.055)	(0.044)	(0.069)	(0.073)	(0.063)	(0.055)
Northern	−0.034	−0.044	0.005	−0.048*	−0.052	−0.054	−0.021	−0.075**
	(0.038)	(0.042)	(0.033)	(0.026)	(0.040)	(0.042)	(0.037)	(0.032)
Constant	0.697***	0.443***	0.390***	0.462***	0.687***	0.404***	0.376***	0.502***
	(0.059)	(0.064)	(0.051)	(0.040)	(0.071)	(0.075)	(0.065)	(0.057)
n	157	157	157	157	152	152	152	152
R²	0.770	0.498	0.414	0.829	0.737	0.475	0.245	0.733
C-D Wald F-statistic	16.53	16.53	16.53	16.53	12.50	12.50	12.50	12.50
Sargan test	1.052	0.007	0.850	7.473***	0.420	0.010	2.235	1.095
p	0.305	0.933	0.357	0.006	0.517	0.919	0.135	0.295

RHS variables	$Polarization index : δ$ = Ability to make ends meet				$Polarization index : δ$ = Deprivation index
RHS variables	Distrust of institutions	Anti-immigration	Authoritarianism	Distrust of people	Distrust of institutions	Anti-immigration	Authoritarianism	Distrust of people
Polarization index (⁠ $p_{i t}^{s}$ ⁠)	1.834***	1.464**	2.616***	2.188***	1.364***	1.338**	1.784***	0.974**
	(0.539)	(0.589)	(0.464)	(0.367)	(0.501)	(0.526)	(0.460)	(0.399)
Δ Immigration stock (⁠ $Δ m_{i t}$ ⁠)	0.150**	0.087	0.271***	0.114***	0.183**	0.110	0.304***	0.170***
	(0.063)	(0.069)	(0.055)	(0.043)	(0.074)	(0.078)	(0.068)	(0.059)
Covariates and Controls
Urban population	−0.192***	0.019	−0.102***	−0.074***	−0.183***	0.022	−0.090**	−0.069**
	(0.038)	(0.041)	(0.032)	(0.026)	(0.041)	(0.043)	(0.037)	(0.032)
GDP per capita	−0.058***	0.003	0.013*	−0.031***	−0.056***	0.008	0.019**	−0.035***
	(0.009)	(0.010)	(0.008)	(0.006)	(0.010)	(0.011)	(0.010)	(0.008)
Δ GDP per capita	−0.250***	−0.265***	0.090	−0.059	−0.280***	−0.280***	0.068	−0.081
	(0.069)	(0.075)	(0.059)	(0.047)	(0.076)	(0.080)	(0.070)	(0.060)
European regions
Central Western	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.	ref.
Southern	−0.081*	0.026	−0.025	0.021	−0.073	0.034	−0.005	0.031
	(0.046)	(0.051)	(0.040)	(0.031)	(0.049)	(0.051)	(0.045)	(0.039)
Eastern	0.032	0.197***	0.076	0.004	0.032	0.199***	0.073	0.001
	(0.064)	(0.070)	(0.055)	(0.044)	(0.069)	(0.073)	(0.063)	(0.055)
Northern	−0.034	−0.044	0.005	−0.048*	−0.052	−0.054	−0.021	−0.075**
	(0.038)	(0.042)	(0.033)	(0.026)	(0.040)	(0.042)	(0.037)	(0.032)
Constant	0.697***	0.443***	0.390***	0.462***	0.687***	0.404***	0.376***	0.502***
	(0.059)	(0.064)	(0.051)	(0.040)	(0.071)	(0.075)	(0.065)	(0.057)
n	157	157	157	157	152	152	152	152
R²	0.770	0.498	0.414	0.829	0.737	0.475	0.245	0.733
C-D Wald F-statistic	16.53	16.53	16.53	16.53	12.50	12.50	12.50	12.50
Sargan test	1.052	0.007	0.850	7.473***	0.420	0.010	2.235	1.095
p	0.305	0.933	0.357	0.006	0.517	0.919	0.135	0.295

Source: SILC and ESS aggregated panel.

Notes: Standard errors in parentheses (* p < 0.1, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01). Also included as controls year dummies and European region*year dummies. IV-2SLS instrumented variable: Δ Immigration stock.

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