Table 1. Open in new tab Overview of...

Concept

Definition

Example(s) and/or Further Clarification

Reputational beliefs

Perceptions that individuals have about agencies with respect to the extent that the agency is performing well in achieving its goals.

Individual perceptions of citizens about an agency, after a direct interaction, concerning abilities, intentions, truthfulness, or competitive strength of an agency.
For example: A citizen considering an agency “too political,” “efficient,” “effective,” or “wasteful.”

Shared beliefs (or: Shared cognition)

Level of similarity in reputational beliefs, within and across an agency’s audiences.

When individuals have similar perceptions about an agency, the shared parts of their perceptions are “shared cognition.” This sharedness can occur, for example, due to similar interactions with the agency and/or by interacting with each other, mutually influencing each other’s perceptions about the agency.

Episodic decision event

A situation or event, out of a series of multiple events, in which a choice has to be made by an agency’s stakeholders towards the agency.

For example:

- The decision by a citizen to take part in a town meeting after having been informed by the agency in question (see figure 3)
- The decision by a citizen to write a (positive or negative) review about an agency on social media

Dual-source perspective: direct interactions with the agency

Information obtained from direct interactions with an agency as a source for the formation and updating of reputational beliefs.

For example:

- A citizen directly interacting with a street-level bureaucrat when receiving a public service
- A police officer directly informing a citizen about a fine
- A student following a class from a professor in a public university

Dual-source perspective: social network interactions with other relevant stakeholders of the agency

Information obtained from social exchange and communication with other individuals on various aspects of an agency as a source for the formation and updating of reputational beliefs.

For example:

- A citizen reading a media report about a public agency
- Two citizens talking to each other about the latest experiences they had with a local public service, or with a specific street-level bureaucrat
- A student learning in class about the quality of public services in a particular country or region

Within-audience social network interactions

Social interactions where individuals rely on information from interactions with individuals with similar needs and preferences in relation to the agency, and who might have had earlier experiences with the agency.

For example:

- Citizens interacting with other citizens, for example talking about common public service experiences
- Employees interacting with other employees in public-serving organizations about common public service experiences
- Journalists interacting with other journalists, etc.

Cross-audience social interactions

Social interactions where individuals rely on information from individuals/stakeholders from other audiences.

For example:

- Citizens receiving information from third-party sources such as newspaper articles written by journalists
- (Nonprofit) rating platforms that operate as a watchdog for the agency’s performance and practices
- Organizations representing consumers or patients,
- Ombudsman services in the financial sector

Structurally related units

Units that can be the object of (different) reputational beliefs but are related in such a way that for example one unit is a necessary component of, is defined by, or is managed by the other unit.

For example:

- An agency as a whole and the group of employees working in the agency
- EU agencies in relation to one another

Audience homogeneity/heterogeneity

Homogeneity: The extent to which interactions with individuals from an agency’s audience are standardized and similar for all individual stakeholders in that audience.
Heterogeneity: The extent to which interactions with individuals from an agency’s audience are variable and differentiated for all individual stakeholders in that audience.

Homogeneity, for example:

- The tax office has very strict procedures, guidelines, and deadlines for all citizens and companies to file their taxes

Heterogeneity, for example:

- The national environmental agency having a context-dependent approach for large-scale projects, such as building a new airport (and applying another evaluation approach for other potential partners)

Concept

Definition

Example(s) and/or Further Clarification

Reputational beliefs

Perceptions that individuals have about agencies with respect to the extent that the agency is performing well in achieving its goals.

Shared beliefs (or: Shared cognition)

Level of similarity in reputational beliefs, within and across an agency’s audiences.

Episodic decision event

A situation or event, out of a series of multiple events, in which a choice has to be made by an agency’s stakeholders towards the agency.

For example:

- The decision by a citizen to take part in a town meeting after having been informed by the agency in question (see figure 3)
- The decision by a citizen to write a (positive or negative) review about an agency on social media

Dual-source perspective: direct interactions with the agency

Information obtained from direct interactions with an agency as a source for the formation and updating of reputational beliefs.

For example:

- A citizen directly interacting with a street-level bureaucrat when receiving a public service
- A police officer directly informing a citizen about a fine
- A student following a class from a professor in a public university

Dual-source perspective: social network interactions with other relevant stakeholders of the agency

Information obtained from social exchange and communication with other individuals on various aspects of an agency as a source for the formation and updating of reputational beliefs.

For example:

- A citizen reading a media report about a public agency
- Two citizens talking to each other about the latest experiences they had with a local public service, or with a specific street-level bureaucrat
- A student learning in class about the quality of public services in a particular country or region

Within-audience social network interactions

For example:

- Citizens interacting with other citizens, for example talking about common public service experiences
- Employees interacting with other employees in public-serving organizations about common public service experiences
- Journalists interacting with other journalists, etc.

Cross-audience social interactions

Social interactions where individuals rely on information from individuals/stakeholders from other audiences.

For example:

- Citizens receiving information from third-party sources such as newspaper articles written by journalists
- (Nonprofit) rating platforms that operate as a watchdog for the agency’s performance and practices
- Organizations representing consumers or patients,
- Ombudsman services in the financial sector

Structurally related units

Units that can be the object of (different) reputational beliefs but are related in such a way that for example one unit is a necessary component of, is defined by, or is managed by the other unit.

For example:

- An agency as a whole and the group of employees working in the agency
- EU agencies in relation to one another

Audience homogeneity/heterogeneity

Homogeneity, for example:

- The tax office has very strict procedures, guidelines, and deadlines for all citizens and companies to file their taxes

Heterogeneity, for example:

- The national environmental agency having a context-dependent approach for large-scale projects, such as building a new airport (and applying another evaluation approach for other potential partners)

Table 1.

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Overview of Concepts Introduced for Micro-Level Elaborations To BRT

Concept	Definition	Example(s) and/or Further Clarification
Reputational beliefs	Perceptions that individuals have about agencies with respect to the extent that the agency is performing well in achieving its goals.	Individual perceptions of citizens about an agency, after a direct interaction, concerning abilities, intentions, truthfulness, or competitive strength of an agency. For example: A citizen considering an agency “too political,” “efficient,” “effective,” or “wasteful.”
Shared beliefs (or: Shared cognition)	Level of similarity in reputational beliefs, within and across an agency’s audiences.	When individuals have similar perceptions about an agency, the shared parts of their perceptions are “shared cognition.” This sharedness can occur, for example, due to similar interactions with the agency and/or by interacting with each other, mutually influencing each other’s perceptions about the agency.
Episodic decision event	A situation or event, out of a series of multiple events, in which a choice has to be made by an agency’s stakeholders towards the agency.	For example: - The decision by a citizen to take part in a town meeting after having been informed by the agency in question (see figure 3) - The decision by a citizen to write a (positive or negative) review about an agency on social media
Dual-source perspective: direct interactions with the agency	Information obtained from direct interactions with an agency as a source for the formation and updating of reputational beliefs.	For example: - A citizen directly interacting with a street-level bureaucrat when receiving a public service - A police officer directly informing a citizen about a fine - A student following a class from a professor in a public university
Dual-source perspective: social network interactions with other relevant stakeholders of the agency	Information obtained from social exchange and communication with other individuals on various aspects of an agency as a source for the formation and updating of reputational beliefs.	For example: - A citizen reading a media report about a public agency - Two citizens talking to each other about the latest experiences they had with a local public service, or with a specific street-level bureaucrat - A student learning in class about the quality of public services in a particular country or region
Within-audience social network interactions	Social interactions where individuals rely on information from interactions with individuals with similar needs and preferences in relation to the agency, and who might have had earlier experiences with the agency.	For example: - Citizens interacting with other citizens, for example talking about common public service experiences - Employees interacting with other employees in public-serving organizations about common public service experiences - Journalists interacting with other journalists, etc.
Cross-audience social interactions	Social interactions where individuals rely on information from individuals/stakeholders from other audiences.	For example: - Citizens receiving information from third-party sources such as newspaper articles written by journalists - (Nonprofit) rating platforms that operate as a watchdog for the agency’s performance and practices - Organizations representing consumers or patients, - Ombudsman services in the financial sector
Structurally related units	Units that can be the object of (different) reputational beliefs but are related in such a way that for example one unit is a necessary component of, is defined by, or is managed by the other unit.	For example: - An agency as a whole and the group of employees working in the agency - EU agencies in relation to one another
Audience homogeneity/heterogeneity	Homogeneity: The extent to which interactions with individuals from an agency’s audience are standardized and similar for all individual stakeholders in that audience. Heterogeneity: The extent to which interactions with individuals from an agency’s audience are variable and differentiated for all individual stakeholders in that audience.	Homogeneity, for example: - The tax office has very strict procedures, guidelines, and deadlines for all citizens and companies to file their taxes Heterogeneity, for example: - The national environmental agency having a context-dependent approach for large-scale projects, such as building a new airport (and applying another evaluation approach for other potential partners)

Concept	Definition	Example(s) and/or Further Clarification
Reputational beliefs	Perceptions that individuals have about agencies with respect to the extent that the agency is performing well in achieving its goals.	Individual perceptions of citizens about an agency, after a direct interaction, concerning abilities, intentions, truthfulness, or competitive strength of an agency. For example: A citizen considering an agency “too political,” “efficient,” “effective,” or “wasteful.”
Shared beliefs (or: Shared cognition)	Level of similarity in reputational beliefs, within and across an agency’s audiences.	When individuals have similar perceptions about an agency, the shared parts of their perceptions are “shared cognition.” This sharedness can occur, for example, due to similar interactions with the agency and/or by interacting with each other, mutually influencing each other’s perceptions about the agency.
Episodic decision event	A situation or event, out of a series of multiple events, in which a choice has to be made by an agency’s stakeholders towards the agency.	For example: - The decision by a citizen to take part in a town meeting after having been informed by the agency in question (see figure 3) - The decision by a citizen to write a (positive or negative) review about an agency on social media
Dual-source perspective: direct interactions with the agency	Information obtained from direct interactions with an agency as a source for the formation and updating of reputational beliefs.	For example: - A citizen directly interacting with a street-level bureaucrat when receiving a public service - A police officer directly informing a citizen about a fine - A student following a class from a professor in a public university
Dual-source perspective: social network interactions with other relevant stakeholders of the agency	Information obtained from social exchange and communication with other individuals on various aspects of an agency as a source for the formation and updating of reputational beliefs.	For example: - A citizen reading a media report about a public agency - Two citizens talking to each other about the latest experiences they had with a local public service, or with a specific street-level bureaucrat - A student learning in class about the quality of public services in a particular country or region
Within-audience social network interactions	Social interactions where individuals rely on information from interactions with individuals with similar needs and preferences in relation to the agency, and who might have had earlier experiences with the agency.	For example: - Citizens interacting with other citizens, for example talking about common public service experiences - Employees interacting with other employees in public-serving organizations about common public service experiences - Journalists interacting with other journalists, etc.
Cross-audience social interactions	Social interactions where individuals rely on information from individuals/stakeholders from other audiences.	For example: - Citizens receiving information from third-party sources such as newspaper articles written by journalists - (Nonprofit) rating platforms that operate as a watchdog for the agency’s performance and practices - Organizations representing consumers or patients, - Ombudsman services in the financial sector
Structurally related units	Units that can be the object of (different) reputational beliefs but are related in such a way that for example one unit is a necessary component of, is defined by, or is managed by the other unit.	For example: - An agency as a whole and the group of employees working in the agency - EU agencies in relation to one another
Audience homogeneity/heterogeneity	Homogeneity: The extent to which interactions with individuals from an agency’s audience are standardized and similar for all individual stakeholders in that audience. Heterogeneity: The extent to which interactions with individuals from an agency’s audience are variable and differentiated for all individual stakeholders in that audience.	Homogeneity, for example: - The tax office has very strict procedures, guidelines, and deadlines for all citizens and companies to file their taxes Heterogeneity, for example: - The national environmental agency having a context-dependent approach for large-scale projects, such as building a new airport (and applying another evaluation approach for other potential partners)

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