Table 3. Open in new tab Summary of...

Table 3.

Summary of Significant Results of the Different Arms of Selected Studies Detailing the Calorie-Restriction Status

Study (year)	LC-CR		LC, no CR		CD-CR		CD, no CR
Study (year)

Pauley et al (2021)⁴³			↓ Weight	↓TG
Pauley et al (2021)⁴³			↓BMI	↓ Insulin
Goss et al (2020)⁴⁴			↓ Weight ↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass weight maintained	↓ Hepatic lipid			Low-fat weight maintained
Felix et al (2020)⁴⁵			Sample number too low
Kirk et al (2017)⁴⁶			Protein unlimited		Hypocaloric diet TFEQ ↑ Cognitive restraint ↓ Hunger	↓ Disinhibition	Restricted-glycemic-load diet TFEQ ↑ Cognitive restraint ↓ Disinhibition ↓ Hunger Protein unlimited
Kirk et al (2017)⁴⁶			Protein unlimited		↓ 500 kilocalories daily 10% to 15% of their calories from protein
Kirk et al (2012)⁴⁷			↓ BMI z-score ↓ Body fat	↓ TG ↑ HDL ↓↓ Insulin	Hypocaloric diet ↓BMI z-score ↓ Body fat	↓ Insulin ↑ HDL	Restricted-glycemic-load diet ↓BMI z-score ↓ Insulin ↓ Body fat ↓ LDL ↓ Waist circumference Protein unlimited
			↓ Waist circumference		↓ Waist circumference
			Protein unlimited		↓ 500 kilocalories daily 10% to 15% of their calories from protein
Partsalaki et al (2012)⁴⁸			Ketogenic diet ↓↓ Weight ↓↓ Fat mass ↓↓ Waist circumference	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Insulin ↑ Adiponectin	Hypocaloric diet ↓ Weight ↓ Fat mass	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Insulin
			Protein unlimited		↓ Waist circumference
			Protein unlimited		↓ 500 kilocalories daily 12% to 22% of their calories from protein
Ornstein et al (2011)⁴⁹			↓ Weight ↓ Waist circumference Protein unlimited		Low-fat ↓ Weight ↓ Waist circumference
Ornstein et al (2011)⁴⁹			↓ Weight ↓ Waist circumference Protein unlimited		Protein unlimited
Truby et al (2016)⁵⁰	↓ Weight ↓ BMI z-score	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Leptin ↑ Adiponectin			Low-fat ↓ Weight ↓ BMI z-score	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Leptin ↑ Adiponectin	Control No intervention
	↓ Waist circumference ↓ 20% daily calorie intake compared with their energy expenditure				↓ Waist circumference
					↓ 20% daily calorie intake compared with their energy expenditure
Siegel et al (2009)⁵¹			↓BMI Protein unlimited
Demol et al (2009)⁵²	Low-carbohydrate, high-fat, low-protein				High-carbohydrate, low-fat, low-protein
	↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass	↓ Insulin ↓ HOMA-IR ↓ TG ↓ LDL ↓ Leptin			↓BMI ↓BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric 20% protein	↓ TG ↓ LDL ↓ Leptin
	isocaloric 20% protein				Low-carbohydrate, low-fat, high-protein
	isocaloric 20% protein				↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric	↓ Insulin ↓ HOMA-IR ↓ TG ↓ LDL ↓ Leptin
Yackobovitch-Gavan et al (2008)⁵³	Low-carbohydrate, high-fat, low-protein				High-carbohydrate, low-fat, low-protein
	↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric 20% protein				↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric 20% protein
	↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric 20% protein				Low-carbohydrate, low-fat, high-protein ↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric
Sunehag et al (2005)⁵⁴ (crossover study)			↓ Total cholesterol isocaloric, weight maintained isonitrogenous				Standard diet isocaloric, weight maintained isonitrogenous
Bailes et al (2003)⁵⁵			Low-carbohydrate, high-protein		Calorie-restricted ↑ Weight ↑ BMI ↓ 20% of energy needs protein (15%-20%), fat (<30%)
Bailes et al (2003)⁵⁵			↓ Weight ↓ BMI Protein unlimited
Sondike et al (2003)⁵⁶			↓↓ Weight ↓↓ BMI	↓ TG			Low-fat ↓ Weight ↓ LDL ↓ BMI
Willi et al (1998)⁵⁷	Low-carbohydrate, low-fat, high-protein
	↓ Weight ↓ BMI ↓ Fat mass	↓ Cholesterol
	650 to 725 calories/d
Krebs et al (2010)⁵⁸			Low-carbohydrate, high-protein		Low-fat
Krebs et al (2010)⁵⁸			↓↓ BMI z-score	↓↓ TG ↓ LDL ↓ Insulin	↓ BMI z-score 70% of REE Protein unlimited	↓ TG ↓ LDL
Zeybek et al (2010)⁵⁹			↓ Weight ↓ BMI Protein unlimited	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Insulin
Zeybek et al (2009)⁶⁰			↓ Weight ↓ BMI Protein unlimited
Dunlap and Bailes (2008)⁶¹			↓ TG Protein unlimited

Study (year)	LC-CR		LC, no CR		CD-CR		CD, no CR
Study (year)

Pauley et al (2021)⁴³			↓ Weight	↓TG
Pauley et al (2021)⁴³			↓BMI	↓ Insulin
Goss et al (2020)⁴⁴			↓ Weight ↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass weight maintained	↓ Hepatic lipid			Low-fat weight maintained
Felix et al (2020)⁴⁵			Sample number too low
Kirk et al (2017)⁴⁶			Protein unlimited		Hypocaloric diet TFEQ ↑ Cognitive restraint ↓ Hunger	↓ Disinhibition	Restricted-glycemic-load diet TFEQ ↑ Cognitive restraint ↓ Disinhibition ↓ Hunger Protein unlimited
Kirk et al (2017)⁴⁶			Protein unlimited		↓ 500 kilocalories daily 10% to 15% of their calories from protein
Kirk et al (2012)⁴⁷			↓ BMI z-score ↓ Body fat	↓ TG ↑ HDL ↓↓ Insulin	Hypocaloric diet ↓BMI z-score ↓ Body fat	↓ Insulin ↑ HDL	Restricted-glycemic-load diet ↓BMI z-score ↓ Insulin ↓ Body fat ↓ LDL ↓ Waist circumference Protein unlimited
			↓ Waist circumference		↓ Waist circumference
			Protein unlimited		↓ 500 kilocalories daily 10% to 15% of their calories from protein
Partsalaki et al (2012)⁴⁸			Ketogenic diet ↓↓ Weight ↓↓ Fat mass ↓↓ Waist circumference	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Insulin ↑ Adiponectin	Hypocaloric diet ↓ Weight ↓ Fat mass	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Insulin
			Protein unlimited		↓ Waist circumference
			Protein unlimited		↓ 500 kilocalories daily 12% to 22% of their calories from protein
Ornstein et al (2011)⁴⁹			↓ Weight ↓ Waist circumference Protein unlimited		Low-fat ↓ Weight ↓ Waist circumference
Ornstein et al (2011)⁴⁹			↓ Weight ↓ Waist circumference Protein unlimited		Protein unlimited
Truby et al (2016)⁵⁰	↓ Weight ↓ BMI z-score	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Leptin ↑ Adiponectin			Low-fat ↓ Weight ↓ BMI z-score	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Leptin ↑ Adiponectin	Control No intervention
	↓ Waist circumference ↓ 20% daily calorie intake compared with their energy expenditure				↓ Waist circumference
					↓ 20% daily calorie intake compared with their energy expenditure
Siegel et al (2009)⁵¹			↓BMI Protein unlimited
Demol et al (2009)⁵²	Low-carbohydrate, high-fat, low-protein				High-carbohydrate, low-fat, low-protein
	↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass	↓ Insulin ↓ HOMA-IR ↓ TG ↓ LDL ↓ Leptin			↓BMI ↓BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric 20% protein	↓ TG ↓ LDL ↓ Leptin
	isocaloric 20% protein				Low-carbohydrate, low-fat, high-protein
	isocaloric 20% protein				↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric	↓ Insulin ↓ HOMA-IR ↓ TG ↓ LDL ↓ Leptin
Yackobovitch-Gavan et al (2008)⁵³	Low-carbohydrate, high-fat, low-protein				High-carbohydrate, low-fat, low-protein
	↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric 20% protein				↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric 20% protein
	↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric 20% protein				Low-carbohydrate, low-fat, high-protein ↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric
Sunehag et al (2005)⁵⁴ (crossover study)			↓ Total cholesterol isocaloric, weight maintained isonitrogenous				Standard diet isocaloric, weight maintained isonitrogenous
Bailes et al (2003)⁵⁵			Low-carbohydrate, high-protein		Calorie-restricted ↑ Weight ↑ BMI ↓ 20% of energy needs protein (15%-20%), fat (<30%)
Bailes et al (2003)⁵⁵			↓ Weight ↓ BMI Protein unlimited
Sondike et al (2003)⁵⁶			↓↓ Weight ↓↓ BMI	↓ TG			Low-fat ↓ Weight ↓ LDL ↓ BMI
Willi et al (1998)⁵⁷	Low-carbohydrate, low-fat, high-protein
	↓ Weight ↓ BMI ↓ Fat mass	↓ Cholesterol
	650 to 725 calories/d
Krebs et al (2010)⁵⁸			Low-carbohydrate, high-protein		Low-fat
Krebs et al (2010)⁵⁸			↓↓ BMI z-score	↓↓ TG ↓ LDL ↓ Insulin	↓ BMI z-score 70% of REE Protein unlimited	↓ TG ↓ LDL
Zeybek et al (2010)⁵⁹			↓ Weight ↓ BMI Protein unlimited	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Insulin
Zeybek et al (2009)⁶⁰			↓ Weight ↓ BMI Protein unlimited
Dunlap and Bailes (2008)⁶¹			↓ TG Protein unlimited

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; CD, comparator diet; CR, caloric-restricted diet; HDL, high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol; HOMA-IR, homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance; LC, low-carbohydrate diet; LDL, low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol; REE, resting energy expenditure; TFEQ, Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire; TG, Triglycerides; ↓, decrease; ↓↓, major decrease; ↑, increase.

Table 3.

Open in new tab

Summary of Significant Results of the Different Arms of Selected Studies Detailing the Calorie-Restriction Status

Study (year)	LC-CR		LC, no CR		CD-CR		CD, no CR
Study (year)

Pauley et al (2021)⁴³			↓ Weight	↓TG
Pauley et al (2021)⁴³			↓BMI	↓ Insulin
Goss et al (2020)⁴⁴			↓ Weight ↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass weight maintained	↓ Hepatic lipid			Low-fat weight maintained
Felix et al (2020)⁴⁵			Sample number too low
Kirk et al (2017)⁴⁶			Protein unlimited		Hypocaloric diet TFEQ ↑ Cognitive restraint ↓ Hunger	↓ Disinhibition	Restricted-glycemic-load diet TFEQ ↑ Cognitive restraint ↓ Disinhibition ↓ Hunger Protein unlimited
Kirk et al (2017)⁴⁶			Protein unlimited		↓ 500 kilocalories daily 10% to 15% of their calories from protein
Kirk et al (2012)⁴⁷			↓ BMI z-score ↓ Body fat	↓ TG ↑ HDL ↓↓ Insulin	Hypocaloric diet ↓BMI z-score ↓ Body fat	↓ Insulin ↑ HDL	Restricted-glycemic-load diet ↓BMI z-score ↓ Insulin ↓ Body fat ↓ LDL ↓ Waist circumference Protein unlimited
			↓ Waist circumference		↓ Waist circumference
			Protein unlimited		↓ 500 kilocalories daily 10% to 15% of their calories from protein
Partsalaki et al (2012)⁴⁸			Ketogenic diet ↓↓ Weight ↓↓ Fat mass ↓↓ Waist circumference	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Insulin ↑ Adiponectin	Hypocaloric diet ↓ Weight ↓ Fat mass	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Insulin
			Protein unlimited		↓ Waist circumference
			Protein unlimited		↓ 500 kilocalories daily 12% to 22% of their calories from protein
Ornstein et al (2011)⁴⁹			↓ Weight ↓ Waist circumference Protein unlimited		Low-fat ↓ Weight ↓ Waist circumference
Ornstein et al (2011)⁴⁹			↓ Weight ↓ Waist circumference Protein unlimited		Protein unlimited
Truby et al (2016)⁵⁰	↓ Weight ↓ BMI z-score	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Leptin ↑ Adiponectin			Low-fat ↓ Weight ↓ BMI z-score	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Leptin ↑ Adiponectin	Control No intervention
	↓ Waist circumference ↓ 20% daily calorie intake compared with their energy expenditure				↓ Waist circumference
					↓ 20% daily calorie intake compared with their energy expenditure
Siegel et al (2009)⁵¹			↓BMI Protein unlimited
Demol et al (2009)⁵²	Low-carbohydrate, high-fat, low-protein				High-carbohydrate, low-fat, low-protein
	↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass	↓ Insulin ↓ HOMA-IR ↓ TG ↓ LDL ↓ Leptin			↓BMI ↓BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric 20% protein	↓ TG ↓ LDL ↓ Leptin
	isocaloric 20% protein				Low-carbohydrate, low-fat, high-protein
	isocaloric 20% protein				↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric	↓ Insulin ↓ HOMA-IR ↓ TG ↓ LDL ↓ Leptin
Yackobovitch-Gavan et al (2008)⁵³	Low-carbohydrate, high-fat, low-protein				High-carbohydrate, low-fat, low-protein
	↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric 20% protein				↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric 20% protein
	↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric 20% protein				Low-carbohydrate, low-fat, high-protein ↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric
Sunehag et al (2005)⁵⁴ (crossover study)			↓ Total cholesterol isocaloric, weight maintained isonitrogenous				Standard diet isocaloric, weight maintained isonitrogenous
Bailes et al (2003)⁵⁵			Low-carbohydrate, high-protein		Calorie-restricted ↑ Weight ↑ BMI ↓ 20% of energy needs protein (15%-20%), fat (<30%)
Bailes et al (2003)⁵⁵			↓ Weight ↓ BMI Protein unlimited
Sondike et al (2003)⁵⁶			↓↓ Weight ↓↓ BMI	↓ TG			Low-fat ↓ Weight ↓ LDL ↓ BMI
Willi et al (1998)⁵⁷	Low-carbohydrate, low-fat, high-protein
	↓ Weight ↓ BMI ↓ Fat mass	↓ Cholesterol
	650 to 725 calories/d
Krebs et al (2010)⁵⁸			Low-carbohydrate, high-protein		Low-fat
Krebs et al (2010)⁵⁸			↓↓ BMI z-score	↓↓ TG ↓ LDL ↓ Insulin	↓ BMI z-score 70% of REE Protein unlimited	↓ TG ↓ LDL
Zeybek et al (2010)⁵⁹			↓ Weight ↓ BMI Protein unlimited	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Insulin
Zeybek et al (2009)⁶⁰			↓ Weight ↓ BMI Protein unlimited
Dunlap and Bailes (2008)⁶¹			↓ TG Protein unlimited

Study (year)	LC-CR		LC, no CR		CD-CR		CD, no CR
Study (year)

Pauley et al (2021)⁴³			↓ Weight	↓TG
Pauley et al (2021)⁴³			↓BMI	↓ Insulin
Goss et al (2020)⁴⁴			↓ Weight ↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass weight maintained	↓ Hepatic lipid			Low-fat weight maintained
Felix et al (2020)⁴⁵			Sample number too low
Kirk et al (2017)⁴⁶			Protein unlimited		Hypocaloric diet TFEQ ↑ Cognitive restraint ↓ Hunger	↓ Disinhibition	Restricted-glycemic-load diet TFEQ ↑ Cognitive restraint ↓ Disinhibition ↓ Hunger Protein unlimited
Kirk et al (2017)⁴⁶			Protein unlimited		↓ 500 kilocalories daily 10% to 15% of their calories from protein
Kirk et al (2012)⁴⁷			↓ BMI z-score ↓ Body fat	↓ TG ↑ HDL ↓↓ Insulin	Hypocaloric diet ↓BMI z-score ↓ Body fat	↓ Insulin ↑ HDL	Restricted-glycemic-load diet ↓BMI z-score ↓ Insulin ↓ Body fat ↓ LDL ↓ Waist circumference Protein unlimited
			↓ Waist circumference		↓ Waist circumference
			Protein unlimited		↓ 500 kilocalories daily 10% to 15% of their calories from protein
Partsalaki et al (2012)⁴⁸			Ketogenic diet ↓↓ Weight ↓↓ Fat mass ↓↓ Waist circumference	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Insulin ↑ Adiponectin	Hypocaloric diet ↓ Weight ↓ Fat mass	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Insulin
			Protein unlimited		↓ Waist circumference
			Protein unlimited		↓ 500 kilocalories daily 12% to 22% of their calories from protein
Ornstein et al (2011)⁴⁹			↓ Weight ↓ Waist circumference Protein unlimited		Low-fat ↓ Weight ↓ Waist circumference
Ornstein et al (2011)⁴⁹			↓ Weight ↓ Waist circumference Protein unlimited		Protein unlimited
Truby et al (2016)⁵⁰	↓ Weight ↓ BMI z-score	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Leptin ↑ Adiponectin			Low-fat ↓ Weight ↓ BMI z-score	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Leptin ↑ Adiponectin	Control No intervention
	↓ Waist circumference ↓ 20% daily calorie intake compared with their energy expenditure				↓ Waist circumference
					↓ 20% daily calorie intake compared with their energy expenditure
Siegel et al (2009)⁵¹			↓BMI Protein unlimited
Demol et al (2009)⁵²	Low-carbohydrate, high-fat, low-protein				High-carbohydrate, low-fat, low-protein
	↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass	↓ Insulin ↓ HOMA-IR ↓ TG ↓ LDL ↓ Leptin			↓BMI ↓BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric 20% protein	↓ TG ↓ LDL ↓ Leptin
	isocaloric 20% protein				Low-carbohydrate, low-fat, high-protein
	isocaloric 20% protein				↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric	↓ Insulin ↓ HOMA-IR ↓ TG ↓ LDL ↓ Leptin
Yackobovitch-Gavan et al (2008)⁵³	Low-carbohydrate, high-fat, low-protein				High-carbohydrate, low-fat, low-protein
	↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric 20% protein				↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric 20% protein
	↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric 20% protein				Low-carbohydrate, low-fat, high-protein ↓ BMI ↓ BMI z-score ↓ Fat mass isocaloric
Sunehag et al (2005)⁵⁴ (crossover study)			↓ Total cholesterol isocaloric, weight maintained isonitrogenous				Standard diet isocaloric, weight maintained isonitrogenous
Bailes et al (2003)⁵⁵			Low-carbohydrate, high-protein		Calorie-restricted ↑ Weight ↑ BMI ↓ 20% of energy needs protein (15%-20%), fat (<30%)
Bailes et al (2003)⁵⁵			↓ Weight ↓ BMI Protein unlimited
Sondike et al (2003)⁵⁶			↓↓ Weight ↓↓ BMI	↓ TG			Low-fat ↓ Weight ↓ LDL ↓ BMI
Willi et al (1998)⁵⁷	Low-carbohydrate, low-fat, high-protein
	↓ Weight ↓ BMI ↓ Fat mass	↓ Cholesterol
	650 to 725 calories/d
Krebs et al (2010)⁵⁸			Low-carbohydrate, high-protein		Low-fat
Krebs et al (2010)⁵⁸			↓↓ BMI z-score	↓↓ TG ↓ LDL ↓ Insulin	↓ BMI z-score 70% of REE Protein unlimited	↓ TG ↓ LDL
Zeybek et al (2010)⁵⁹			↓ Weight ↓ BMI Protein unlimited	↓ HOMA-IR ↓ Insulin
Zeybek et al (2009)⁶⁰			↓ Weight ↓ BMI Protein unlimited
Dunlap and Bailes (2008)⁶¹			↓ TG Protein unlimited

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