Effects of GDCA administration on postprandial glucose, insulin, and GLP-1. Postprandial glucose, insulin, and GLP-1 responses measured at days 15 and 31 after the start of GDCA administration. Data are presented as mean ± SEM. †P ≤ .05, at day 31 assessed with mixed-effect models and post hoc multiple comparisons (baseline vs day 31). Abbreviations: GDCA, glycodeoxycholic acid; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide-1.