Transgenerational traumatization and sexualized violence: A systematic review on an omnipresent, shadowed theme in social work theory and practice

Abstract

Sexualized violence against women has long-term effects across generations. The literature review here presented is connected to the three-year feminist participatory action research TRACES, which investigates the transgenerational impact of sexualized violence against women in northern Italy from a socio-ecological perspective. Various meetings with local social and healthcare professionals revealed a lack of specific methods to address the transgenerational consequences. Thus, the review addresses the following questions: To what extent has research in social work addressed the topic of transgenerational traumatization as a long-term consequence of sexualized violence against women? Is there a deficiency in the transfer between theory and practice that needs to be bridged? Through systematically exploring four databases, a thematic analysis of thirty-three articles provides answers along the macro-areas: transgenerational traumatization, long-term repercussions on maternal caregiving, historical trauma and structural inequalities, and transgenerational and historical trauma-informed approaches. A strong body of literature on transgenerational and intergenerational traumatization in general could be identified, as well as research gaps regarding the long-term consequences of sexualized violence against women across generations. Regarding the transfer from theory to practice, the literature highlights shortcomings in implementing trauma-informed approaches that adequately address the specific dynamics of transgenerational and historical trauma.

Introduction

Recently, social and healthcare professions have put much emphasis on trauma and its long-term effects. Indeed, the long-term consequences of sexualized violence against women might also affect future generations. Similar to direct survivors, their descendants risk carrying the physical and emotional effects of trauma despite not experiencing it directly (Yehuda, Lehrner, and Bierer 2018). A substantial body of literature focuses on supporting individuals affected by direct trauma or by witnessing trauma. However, there remains a gap in the understanding of transgenerational traumatization arising from sexualized violence. Unlike the concept of intergenerational transmission of trauma, which often focuses on two generations (Mauri 2023), the concept of transgenerational traumatization extends across several generations within a family system. By incorporating the concept of historical trauma, a view beyond family transmission is possible, including the impact of structural violence grounded in the symbolic order of patriarchal societies (Bourdieu 2005; Rosenwald, Baird, and Williams 2023).

This literature review is embedded in the three-year feminist participatory action research TRACES (TRAnsgenerational ConsEquences of Sexualized violence), which investigates the transgenerational impact of sexualized violence against women and girls in the Vinschgau region, part of South Tyrol, in northern Italy. The TRACES study focuses on the continuum of violence stemming from unaddressed trauma from sexualized violence against women and girls, recognizing this as a structural issue with pervasive societal impacts. The study, embedded within the implementation of the Istanbul Convention (i.e. the Council of Europe 2021), involves international academic and non-academic partners: the University of Trento, Forum Prevention, Medica Mondiale and the Women’s Museum Meran. It is financed by the Autonomous Province of Bozen—South Tyrol, and Foundation Suedtiroler Sparkasse.

The sociological perspective within TRACES serves as a vital element that complements and enriches the predominance of psychological research on trauma and its consequences. By incorporating Bourdieu’s theory of practice with its analytical tools: capital, habitus and field, the project sheds light on the roots of violence against women. Bourdieu’s concept of habitus, understood as both structured and structuring structure, bridges individual actions with broader societal dynamics (Bourdieu 2018). Building on feminist theories such as Feminist Standpoint Theory (Naples and Gurr 2014), Situated Knowledge (Haraway 1988), and Intersectionality (Crenshaw 1989), TRACES adopts Yuval-Davis (2015) concept of Situated Intersectionality as its central theoretical framework. The nuanced attention that situated intersectionality gives to geographical, social, and temporal contexts has proven particularly suitable for addressing the research questions. Additionally, Spivak’s (2014) work on subaltern articulation and the challenges faced by women attempting to voice their experiences within patriarchal structures further informs the study.

The essential aims of the study are to understand the dynamics of transgenerational traumatization, to confront the cultural silence surrounding sexualized violence, and, as it is also action research, to potentially disrupt its continuation or prevent its emergence. These goals include developing evidence-based training for socio-healthcare professionals to enhance their skills in dealing with the dynamics of transgenerational traumatization.

To realize the participative and co-creative research design, the study began in spring 2023 by inviting all relevant stakeholders of the Vinschgau region, including social and healthcare professionals, mayors, and diverse CSO’s etc. Initial dialogues with social and healthcare professionals revealed that the silence and taboos surrounding sexualized violence persist even within professional circles. Some professionals acknowledged challenges in addressing trauma, while others claimed no prior encounters with cases of sexualized violence, despite its prevalence. Furthermore, we encountered several forms of gatekeeping, expressed through nonverbal reactions like crying, lowering their eyes, changing the topic, or verbal reactions such as: ‘If they have lived up to now with their experiences, they don’t need to start processing their trauma’. The impression received is that some professionals participate (un)consciously in the culture of silence and taboos observed throughout the region. A concrete request from a group of diverse social and healthcare workers was to first offer professional training on sexuality and sexualized violence in order to enable them to inform others about the TRACES study.

By embracing this request and preparing the workshop, further questions arose regarding the observed lack of specific methods for addressing the transgenerational consequences of sexualized violence and the resulting reliance on intuitive practices. And said questions have also guided the present literature review. They are the following: To what extent has research in social work addressed the topic of transgenerational traumatization as a long-term consequence of sexualized violence against women, and what research gaps exist? Or is there more of a deficiency in the transfer between theory and practice that needs to be bridged? Against this backdrop, the necessity of a systematic literature analysis emerged, the results of which will be presented subsequently.

Exploring trauma: Gender-based violence, complex post-traumatic stress disorder, transgenerational and historical traumatization

To ensure a shared understanding of the key concepts and terms used, some definitions will be given before presenting the methods adopted and results obtained. This paragraph will explore various dimensions of trauma, particularly focusing on gender-based violence against women and girls, trauma, complex post-traumatic stress disorder (CPTSD), transgenerational trauma, and historical trauma.

In accordance with article 3 of the Istanbul Convention, gender-based violence against women is understood as ‘a violation of human rights and a form of discrimination against women’ that encompasses ‘all acts of gender-based violence that result in, or are likely to result in, physical, sexual, psychological or economic harm or suffering to women’ (Art 3, 2011). Emphasis is placed on the gendered nature of this violence, targeting women because of their gender and disproportionately affecting them. The EU-wide survey on violence against women by FRA in 2014 revealed that ‘one in three women (33%) has experienced physical and/or sexualized violence since she was 15 years old. One in 20 women (5%) has been raped since the age of 15’ (FRA 2014: 21). In Italy, a national survey indicated that 31.5 percent of women aged sixteen to seventy had experienced some form of gender-based violence (ISTAT 2014).

Experiencing rape or witnessing sexualized violence triggers existential fear and a sense of imminent death, pushing the body into an emergency mode that prevents normal processing. This can result in lasting trauma responses like panic attacks, depression, chronic pain, sleep disorders, and altered self-perception. Gahleitner, Frank, and Leitner (2015) describe trauma as a biopsychological event profoundly impacting human development. Schay and Liefke (2009) view trauma as a gap between threats and coping strategies, often leading to helplessness. Trauma involves situational phases, coping strategies, and the social network’s influence (Loch and Schulze 2011). Post-experience support is crucial; lack of support and continued violence can lead to chronic trauma, affecting future generations (Keilson 2005). Trauma is categorized as Type 1 (short, unique events) and Type 2 (prolonged or repeated trauma), with distinctions between accidental and human-made trauma. For instance, rape is Type 1 and human-made, while long-term childhood sexual abuse is Type 2 and human-made (Dreßing and Foerster 2022).

One of the most discussed long-term effects of trauma is described as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The diagnosis PTSD emerged from psychological distress observed in Vietnam War veterans, focusing on symptoms rather than social context (Brandmaier 2015; Isaacs and Kilham 2017). PTSD is notably prevalent after rape, occurring in 50 percent of cases. The DSM-5 includes ‘sexual violence’ in its PTSD criteria, emphasizing symptoms lasting over a month. Critics argue PTSD’s individualistic focus overlooks systemic factors, such as the impact of sexualized violence on survivors’ families. Psychological trauma affects not just individuals but entire communities, especially in long-term violent conflicts, leading to collective trauma. Herman’s work on long-term effects of gender-based violence introduced CPTSD (complex posttraumatic stress disorder), recognized in ICD-11 in 2022, highlighting the need for a contextual understanding of trauma, including structural and symbolic gender-based violence. CPTSD addresses severe issues from prolonged trauma, such as torture, slavery, domestic violence, or repeated abuse. PTSD symptoms include intrusive memories, avoidance, and heightened threat perception, while CPTSD also involves severe emotional dysregulation, persistent negative self-beliefs, and relationship difficulties (Barton and Musil 2019; Dreßing and Foerster 2022).

Regarding the specific focus of this literature review on transgenerational traumatization it can be stated that there is a strong body of literature on transgenerational trauma among descendants of Holocaust survivors (Somer et al. 2015). Trauma experienced by Holocaust and slavery survivors is passed down to the next generation, causing psychological distress and mechanisms that can lead to PTSD (Isaacs and Kilham 2017). Dunkel (2021) explains that transgenerational trauma originates from the first generation’s psychological trauma, transmitted through various mechanisms. Schützenberger (2018) distinguishes between conscious transmission within families through language and unconscious transmission. Suppressed emotions like anger, sadness, and fear are conveyed unconsciously, leading children to vicariously integrate these emotions and identify with their parents’ damaged traits. This can result in secondary traumatization, excessive care for parents, and parentification, as traumatized parents often have limited capacity to perceive their children adequately (Dunkel 2021). Yet, transgenerational traumatization is not limited to the next generation, but can persist across several generations.

Another important dimension that responds to the complex dynamics presented next is linked to historical trauma. Brave Heart (2003) introduced ‘historical trauma’ in the 1980s to describe the consequences of systematic oppression for people of the first nations of America and Canada. She refers to psychological and emotional injuries shared over generations due to collective traumatic experiences of violence and oppression among groups with a shared social, historical, or political background. Historical trauma manifests through deliberate harm targeted at a specific group, a shared group identity, and trauma’s impact across generations (Menzies 2019; Rosenwald, Baird, and Williams 2023). Examples include slavery, colonization, genocide, and war-related mass rape (Močnik 2021). Effects go beyond PTSD and clinical disorders to include non-clinical phenomena like: learned mistrust, exhaustion, feelings of humiliation, cultural-related syndromes, and historical thoughts of loss (Mutuyimana and Maercker 2023). Ongoing discrimination and marginalization perpetuate these trauma responses (Mohatt et al. 2014).

Method

Inspired by the PRISMA-method which structures a literature review in four stages—identification, screening, eligibility, and inclusion—we defined clear guidelines for this review (Moher et al. 2015). The review started in spring 2024 with the first step consisting of identifying pertinent databases to get access to research in the field of social work, transgenerational traumatization, and gender-based violence against women. The databases chosen were: SocINDEX, Oxford Journals, and Sage journals. Additionally, we decided to also include the database of our partner organisation medica mondiale with whom we cooperate closely in the TRACES research project due to their special expertise on the subject of transgenerational traumatization and sexualized violence. Medica mondiale is an internationally active, German feminist women’s rights organization that has been supporting women and girls cross-generational affected by sexualized violence in war and (post)-conflict zones for more than thirty years with a holistic, trauma-sensitive approach that entails social work as a core element. The medica mondiale database is of particular value for practice-oriented research because, in addition to a customized selection of specialist articles on the subject of this literature review, it also contains unpublished project evaluations and project reports, that would otherwise not have been accessible for data analysis.

The second step was to select the criteria of inclusion and exclusion: We examined papers published in peer-reviewed journals in English with a publication date from the year 2014 onwards. We focused on the last ten years due to a notable increase in relevant publications and to align with the most contemporary discourses in social work research and practice. The aim of this literature review was to identify scholarly articles focusing on social work and the dynamics of transgenerational trauma stemming from sexualized violence against women. Consequently, ‘social work’ was a central search term. Defining search terms for transgenerational traumatization proved more complex, as the literature uses varying definitions, such as intergenerational traumatization, and terms like trauma transmission. Aligned with the TRACES study’s feminist participatory action research framework, we included not only theoretical discussions but also articles offering practical insights from social work to inform the ‘action’ component of TRACES. Similarly, challenges arose with the term sexualized violence as we anticipated that some studies might address transgenerational traumatization related to sexualized violence through broader concepts, such as gender-based violence. While sexualized violence can be clearly distinguished as a specific form of harm, gender-based violence is used here as an umbrella term encompassing all other harmful acts based on gender differences. This broader conceptualization ensures that sexualized violence remains central to the discussion, without being overlooked. In practice, social work addressing sexualized and gender-based violence often intersects due to the ‘continuum of violence’ (Cockburn 2004). These considerations guided the selection of the following search terms: ‘social work’, AND ‘transgenerational trauma transmission OR intergenerational traumatization OR transgenerational traumatization OR trauma informed care OR practice OR approach’, AND ‘gender-based violence OR violence against women OR sexual violence OR domestic violence OR intimate partner violence’. These terms were systematically combined to enhance the precision of the search. Finally, it is important to acknowledge that this selection was based on specific considerations and reflections. As with any decision-making process, we are aware of the inherent risk that some relevant literature might have been overlooked.

Identification and screening

The initial research conducted by three of the authors revealed 25,336 articles (Fig. 1). We started with a screening of the articles for their relevance by concentrating first and foremost on the title, abstract, and keywords. During this process, we also eliminated duplicates. The first impression received was that, after deleting duplicates, we had identified a very high number of articles that included research on social work practices, trauma-informed practices and (sexualized) violence against women. However, a large number did not refer to the dynamics of transgenerational or intergenerational traumatization. Therefore, after this second round of screening, we discarded a large number of articles, 25,215, and identified 121 articles for further consideration and proofreading.

Eligibility and further screening

During the proofreading process, the whole research team divided the 121 articles and checked them for their eligibility for the present review (Fig. 1). The shared criteria that were identified were their relevant information to answer the guiding questions. Thus, only articles with a link to social work methods or practices, a link to gender-based violence or sexual violence against women, and a link to transmission of trauma were included. An element of the proofreading was also to consider the references, which introduced a second screening phase. The reference lists of all 121 articles were examined and relevant articles, after eliminating duplicates, were selected for a further screening of their title, abstract, and keywords. This second round of screening added a further four articles to the proofreading process as we noticed that these four articles published prior to 2014 included relevant insights for the aim of our review.

Inclusion

The result from the process of eligibility lead to the inclusion of thirty-three articles selected to provide answers to the guiding questions. A major criterion for exclusion and inclusion was observed to be that most articles referred to social work theory or practice, sexual and gender-based violence against women, and trauma, focusing on the consequences for direct survivors while ignoring the transgenerational or intergenerational dimension. With the aim of keeping the focus of this literature review stringent, only articles applying a trans- or intergenerational dimension had been included. The included articles encompass a broad spectrum, featuring quantitative and qualitative studies, reviews, commentaries, summaries, and developed models for social work practice. An international perspective is incorporated, with contributions from Australia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Cameroon, Canada, Rwanda, Germany, Israel, Italy, Palestine, and USA.

Findings

Based on thirty-three articles, we present a thematic analysis, categorizing results into four main themes (Fig. 1). The thematic analysis was primarily conducted by two authors. In the first step, the thirty-three identified articles where divided and coded independently. In the second step the codes where compared and discussed to reach a consensus. Based on the agreed-upon codes, a second round of coding was conducted to ensure consistency across all thirty-three articles. During this process four main categories emerged: transgenerational traumatization, long-term repercussions on maternal caregiving, historical trauma and structural inequalities, and transgenerational and historical trauma-informed approaches (THTIA). Following the coding process, the results were discussed with the research team and the final analysis was conducted collaboratively. During these discussions the importance of dedicating a separate section to insights from medica mondiale’s experience became apparent. This separate section aims to further enrich the implications for social work practice.

Transgenerational traumatization

In social work there exists a broad body of literature on trans- and intergenerational traumatization concerning child maltreatment (Menzies, 2019; Franchino-Olsen et al. 2023; Mauri 2023). While definitions vary, the term intergenerational trauma transmission is usually used in situations where two generations are directly affected (Lev-Wiesel 2006; Wadji et al. 2022), whereas the concept of transgenerational traumatization describes a transfer of trauma to more generations, including those who have not experienced the trauma directly. Chernivsky (2023) and Schützenberger (2018) focus on the nature of transmission, stating that intergenerational trauma transmission is based on an active dialogue across generations, whereas transgenerational trauma transmission includes indirect forms of transmission of emotions, beliefs and experiences beyond interpersonal communication across generations. Močnik (2021) discusses vertical and horizontal transmission. Vertical transmission occurs through survivor dialogue in peer groups, while horizontal transmission affects subsequent generations culturally and collectively, often perpetuating victimization stigma (Fuchs et al. 2015; Levenson 2017; Fuller-Thomson and Agbeyaka 2020). It is important to add that these conceptual distinctions might not be adopted universally (e.g. Lev-Wiesel 2006; Menzies 2019). Yehuda, Lehrner, and Bierer (2018) emphasize that understanding transgenerational trauma extends beyond social learning to biological transmission, influenced by epigenetics, but caution against conflating epigenetic marks with permanent DNA alterations (Lev-Wiesel, 2006; Yehuda, Lehrner, and Bierer 2018; Rosenwald, Baird, and Williams 2023). Močnik (2021) critiques exclusively psychotherapeutic approaches for individualizing trauma, advocating instead for inclusive social environmental considerations. Chernivsky (2023) and Van Wert et al. (2019) stress a transdisciplinary approach blending nature and nurture in understanding trauma dynamics, considering the impact of socioeconomic status across generations. Khan and Denov (2022) highlight the sociocultural context’s dual role in protecting and perpetuating trauma, noting the need for long-term psychological support and political recognition to combat stigma. Research gaps persist concerning the third and fourth generations, where collective biographical experiences and social trauma are significant (Khan and Denov 2022; Rosenwald, Baird, and Williams 2023).

Long-term repercussions on maternal caregiving

Parents who have experienced trauma often grapple with its transgenerational transmission dynamics (Lerner 2023). As shown by Fuller-Thomson and Agbeyaka (2020), child maltreatment, including children witnessing domestic violence against their mothers, increases the risk of subsequent abuse. Survivors of the Shoah, for instance, may see their trauma activated in their children and grandchildren, with effects studied extensively in psychoanalysis and social sciences. Greene et al. (2020) and Van Wert et al. (2019) highlight that maternal childhood victimization correlates with a higher risk of abusive or neglectful parenting, influenced by environmental, familial, and individual factors (Rosenwald, Baird, and Williams 2023). Aparicio (2017) identifies the need for support networks for teen mothers in foster care to break cycles of maltreatment. Mauri (2023) underscores the compounded risks for children of foster care-experienced mothers, as transitioning to parenthood can trigger past traumas and redefine familial relationships. Wadji et al. (2022) link maternal childhood abuse and current intimate partner violence to maternal anxiety and depression, with externalized symptoms in children. Fuchs et al. (2015) connect maternal abuse histories to higher risks of abusing their own children, often accompanied by avoidant coping strategies. Lev-Wiesel (2006) identifies varying mothering styles among incest survivors, impacting the intergenerational transmission of trauma, with implications for supporting these mothers. Medica mondiale (2019) confirms these findings, noting that war rape survivors report trauma affecting their relationships with children, who exhibit trauma symptoms despite not experiencing direct violence. These insights underscore the imperative of preventing transgenerational traumatization and the role of social recognition in addressing violence’s effects.

Historical trauma and structural inequalities

Steans (2021) explores ongoing feminist debates on sexualized violence across disciplines, applying Bourdieu’s social theory to understand power dynamics and agency in wartime contexts. Using examples like a Woman in Berlin, which examines enforced prostitution during the Soviet occupation in 1945, Steans illustrates how Bourdieu’s concepts of habitus, social field, and capital can elucidate survival strategies and narrative authority within specific social contexts. Menzies (2019) and Rosenwald, Baird, and Williams (2023), connect to the research of Brave Heart (2003) and Brave Heart et al. (2011) and delve into historical trauma, particularly in the context of indigenous experiences of colonization. Menzies (2019) highlights socioeconomic factors as crucial determinants of health-based outcomes among Aboriginal populations, advocating for culturally appropriate interventions that address systemic inequities and historical injustices. Rosenwald, Baird, and Williams (2023) expand on the definition of historical trauma, emphasizing its aspects of intentional harm, shared identity among affected populations, and multi-generational impact, particularly within patriarchal societies where trauma perpetuates privilege and oppression dynamics. Atallah (2017) broadens the discussion by focusing on community resilience and healing processes among Palestinian refugees, challenging Eurocentric perspectives that often overlook collective and interdependent dynamics within communities. Rolnick and Sekaquaptewa (2022) discuss the impact of historical trauma on Native American youth, emphasizing cumulative psychological and emotional wounds across generations linked to community and environmental stressors. Khan and Denov (2022) contribute a culturally enhanced framework for understanding transgenerational trauma among Rwandan genocide survivors, particularly focusing on children born from genocidal rape. Their bioecological approach underscores the importance of long-term psychological support and socio-political recognition in mitigating trauma’s intergenerational transmission. These studies collectively highlight the importance of integrating historical and cultural contexts into trauma-informed approaches (TIA) in social work practice. The need for nuanced, contextually sensitive interventions that address both individual and collective trauma experiences across diverse communities and historical backgrounds is highlighted.

THTIA for social work practice

TIA are crucial in social work practice to enhance resilience, facilitate healing, and promote social justice by addressing systemic inequities and historical injustices (Olsen, Dumas, and Yamamoto 2021; Goodwin and Tiderington, 2022). TIA prioritize safety, trustworthiness, choice, collaboration, and empowerment, integrating clinical and ecological perspectives to address trauma within its broader social contexts (Levenson 2017; Olsen, Dumas, and Yamamoto 2021; Pebole, Gobin, and Hall 2021). Sweeney et al. (2019) critique psychiatric practices for their sometimes-harmful responses to sexual violence survivors, advocating for trauma-informed validation and community-based support as essential components of ethical practice. Fuller-Thomson and Agbeyaka (2020) highlight implications for social work practice, emphasizing the role of trained professionals in identifying risk factors for abusive cycles like domestic violence and parental issues. The #MeToo movement exemplifies a culturally relevant intervention that has increased societal awareness and dialogue around sexualized violence (Azzopardi and Smith 2019). Van Wert et al. (2019) and Khan and Denov (2022) underscore the role of nurturing environments and early interventions in mitigating transgenerational trauma, advocating for culturally relevant strategies. They propose prenatal interventions to enhance mother-child bonding, ongoing psycho-social support post-birth, access to economic resources, and community recognition of trauma. This approach is crucial in interrupting cycles of trauma transmission and promoting resilience. Atallah (2017) expands the discussion to include community dynamics in Palestinian refugee camps, emphasizing resilience and healing within broader social contexts. This perspective highlights kinship relations and community processes as integral to understanding trauma. Building on these foundations, the concept of THTIA expands TIA by incorporating insights into how trauma is transmitted across generations and the historical contexts that shape it (Van Wert et al. 2019; Khan and Denov 2022). Rosenwald, Baird, and Williams (2023) introduce a comprehensive Social Work Model for Historical Trauma, which bridges theoretical knowledge with practical applications across micro, mezzo, and macro levels. This model acknowledges historical trauma’s collective impact and proposes strategies for intervention informed by social work ethics, policy statements, and epigenetics research. It addresses gaps in current practice by advocating for nuanced approaches that consider both individual and collective trauma experiences. In conclusion, integrating THTIA into social work practices enhances the field’s capacity to address complex trauma dynamics across generations and historical contexts. By fostering culturally sensitive interventions and advocating for systemic changes, social workers can play a pivotal role in supporting trauma survivors and promoting community resilience. Continued research and implementation of these approaches are essential to advancing ethical and effective responses to trauma within diverse global contexts (Rosenwald, Baird, and Williams 2023).

Discussion

This review was guided by two core questions: (1) To what extent has research addressed transgenerational traumatization from sexualized violence against women in social work and related professions? (2) Is there a gap in translating theory into practice that needs addressing? Following the four identified categories, that is, transgenerational traumatization, long-term maternal caregiving impacts, historical trauma and structural inequalities, and THITA, and including the reflections presented in the Excursus, we can summarize that:

Transgenerational traumatization, often synonymous with intergenerational traumatization, is widely discussed in child maltreatment literature (Menzies 2019; Franchino-Olsen et al. 2023; Mauri 2023). While intergenerational trauma affects two generations directly, transgenerational trauma impacts multiple generations indirectly (Lev-Wiesel 2006; Greene et al. 2022; Wadji et al. 2022). Chernivsky (2023) and Močnik (2021) offer distinctions in transmission methods. Epigenetics suggests that trauma can be biologically transmitted, though marks are not permanent (Yehuda, Lehrner, and Bierer 2018; Rosenwald, Baird, and Williams 2023). However, the full spectrum of transgenerational trauma, including effects on the third and fourth generations, remains less comprehensively studied. Sociocultural contexts play a significant role in trauma dynamics, emphasizing the need for integrated support systems (Van Wert et al. 2019; Khan and Denov, 2022).

This underscores the importance of a socio-ecological approach in addressing the dynamics of transgenerational traumatization, while highlighting the need for further research including more generations.

Parents with trauma histories often struggle to prevent passing it on to their children, yet trauma’s dynamics persist (Lerner 2023). Studies on Holocaust survivors highlight the direct and transgenerational impacts on self-esteem and relationships. Research, particularly on maternal trauma transmission, shows abused mothers face higher risks of practising abusive parenting (Van Wert et al. 2019; Greene et al. 2020). Maternal trauma correlates with anxiety, depression, and low emotional availability, impacting mother–child interactions (Fuchs et al. 2015; Wadji et al. 2022). Protective factors can mitigate these risks (Rosenwald, Baird, and Williams 2023). Support networks help teen mothers in foster care break the abuse cycle (Aparicio 2017).

In light of this, networks play a crucial role in breaking the cycles of transgenerational traumatization.

Steans (2021) uses Bourdieu’s social theory to explore wartime sexualized violence, emphasizing gender, agency, and structure through habitus, social field, and capital. Menzies (2019) discuss historical trauma from colonization, highlighting socioeconomic factors affecting Indigenous health and resilience. Rosenwald, Baird, and Williams (2023) define historical trauma through deliberate harm, shared identity, and multi-generational impact, including gender-based trauma. Rolnick and Sekaquaptewa (2022) link historical trauma to Native American youth delinquency, advocating holistic, trauma-informed care. Khan and Denov (2022) stress the importance of sociocultural context in understanding and addressing transgenerational trauma in Rwandan genocide survivors.

Building on this, applying the knowledge of historical trauma to the situation of women in patriarchal societies offers a comprehensive pathway to understanding.

Goodwin and Tiderington (2022) highlight the importance of TIA in social work, focusing on safety, trustworthiness, choice, collaboration, and empowerment. Extending TIA to include THTIA, Van Wert et al. (2019) and Khan and Denove (2022) emphasize nurturing environments and early interventions to break the trauma cycle. Azzopardi and Smith (2019) link the #MeToo movement to increased awareness of, and support for, sexual assault survivors. Atallah (2017) stresses community and kinship dynamics in healing, while Sweeney et al. (2019) underscore validation and grassroots support. Rosenwald, Baird, and Williams (2023) propose a Social Work Model for Historical Trauma, integrating theoretical and practical approaches across intervention levels.

Consequently, the importance of developing THTIA for social work practice is emphasized, with the model proposed by  Rosenwald et al. (2023) providing an important and solid basis from which to start.

In addressing our first guiding question, the review identified both a strong body of literature on transgenerational and intergenerational traumatization, as well as a research gap regarding the long-term consequences of sexualized violence against women across generations that also failed to consider the ongoing and historical trauma women experience in patriarchal societies. This result strengthens the purpose of TRACES, namely to add a socio-ecological perspective and provide insights into the long-term impact of sexualized violence across generations.

Regarding the second question on the transfer from theory to practice, the literature supports the impression received from the stakeholder discussions, which highlighted shortcomings in implementing trauma-informed approaches that adequately address the specific dynamics of transgenerational and historical trauma. While theoretical frameworks stress comprehensive understanding encompassing biological and socio-political factors (Yehuda, Lehrner, and Bierer 2018; Van Wert et al. 2019), practical applications often remain confined to psychotherapeutic and clinical models (Močnik 2021). Discussions on historical trauma underscore the need to address structural inequalities and socio-political contexts (Menzies 2019; Rosenwald, Baird, and Williams 2023), yet interventions frequently prioritize immediate psychological support over long-term systemic change. The approach of medica mondiale, presented briefly in the following excursus, which translates theoretical insights into practice through holistic support including medical care, counselling, legal assistance, and vocational training, serves as a rare model in settings where resources are limited due to funding and institutional constraints (Medica mondiale 2019; Kamali et al. 2020). Furthermore, the model of Rosenwald, Baird, and Williams (2023) provides an inspiring contribution for the aim of TRACES to fill the gap and promote an effective transfer from theory to practice.

Excursus: medica mondiale and community-based healing: THTIA in post-conflict settings

Our cooperation with medica mondiale is crucial to address this gap in theory and practice within the framework of international development assistance. For over three decades, medica mondiale has specialized in trauma work with women and girls, emphasizing a critical trauma-informed approach that spans medical care, psychosocial counseling, legal assistance, and vocational training (medica mondiale 2019). Their efforts underscore ongoing challenges in addressing sexualized violence, advocating for systemic changes, and supporting affected populations on a long-term basis (Wood, Apthorpe, and Borton 2002). The evolution of international development assistance since the late 1970s has focused on relief efforts that prioritize preventing harm and promoting well-being (IASC 2007). However, scholars like Ruth Seifert (2021) argue that these interventions can inadvertently perpetuate neoliberal agendas and overlook culturally specific coping mechanisms in trauma response. This critique highlights a need for more culturally sensitive approaches within psychosocial interventions, particularly in the Global South, where systemic inequalities and historical contexts shape trauma experiences (Ventevogel 2018). Community-based interventions have shown promise in promoting well-being among survivors of sexualized violence and reducing its prevalence (Spangaro et al. 2015; Bangpan et al. 2017). Yet, there remains a significant gap in gender-differentiated programs for older adults and comprehensive evidence-based practices in post-conflict settings (Haroz et al. 2020). Medica mondiale’s holistic model and ongoing projects, such as ‘Children and Trauma’ in Central and East Africa, exemplify effective integration of psychosocial support with community engagement and advocacy for systemic change. In conclusion, integrating mental health and psychosocial support with humanitarian and development initiatives holds promise for addressing the complex needs of trauma survivors and promoting sustainable peacebuilding efforts globally (Bubenzer and Tankink 2015; Bubenzer 2020). Medica mondiale’s approach provides a concrete example of how such integration can support resilience and recovery, offering lessons for scaling effective interventions across regions affected by conflict and sexualized violence.

Final remarks

This review aimed to answer the following: to what extent has social work research addressed transgenerational trauma from sexualized violence against women, and what gaps in research and theory-to-practice transfer remain? In answering these questions, some limits need to be acknowledged. For example, the lack of a uniform terminology posed a risk of excluding relevant publications, and it had to be mitigated by including different wordings and reference lists. Further limitations include the choice of databases and the focus on peer-reviewed papers published in English.

In summary, the findings underscore the critical need for culturally sensitive and gender-responsive social work interventions that address the transgenerational consequences of trauma. The emphasis on community-based approaches highlights the importance of empowering survivors through localized, participatory models, which not only facilitate individual healing but also strengthen community bonds and advocate for systemic change. The necessity of developing specific practices for working with survivors of sexualized violence, including a THTIA approach, is stressed. For the broader public, these findings draw attention to the interconnectedness of trauma and systemic inequalities, emphasizing the need for sustained global investment in peacebuilding and holistic care.

Conflicts of interest. None declared.

Funding

The study is funded by Autonomous Province of Bolzano/Bozen—South Tyrol, Department of Social Policies and Foundation Südtiroler Sparkasse.

References