Oxford Handbook of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (3 edn)
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Perinatal mortality: overview
The role of modern maternity care is to ensure a safe maternal and fetal outcome at childbirth. A system whereby lessons can be learnt from adverse outcomes using analysis of databases and audits should improve outcome.
The first body established to do this in the UK was the Confidential Enquiry into Maternal Deaths (CEMD) in 1952 and subsequently the Confidential Enquiry into Stillbirths and Deaths in Infancy (CESDI) in 1992. The aim of these organizations was to undertake on-going national surveys of perinatal and infant deaths, identify risks, and make recommendations to improve clinical practice.
The Confidential Enquiry into Maternal and Child Health (CEMACH) was the successor to these, shortly followed by the setting up of the Centre for Maternal and Child Enquiries (CMACE). CMACE looks into the maternal, perinatal, and child health issues with extensive lay and voluntary sector involvement.
From 1954 to the mid-1990s, stillbirth and neonatal death rates in England and Wales fell steadily. In 1992 the gestation recognized for a stillbirth was decreased from 28 to 24wks.
Late fetal loss: a child delivering between 22+0 and 23+6wks of gestation who did not, at any time after being delivered, breathe or show any other signs of life.
Stillbirth: a child delivered after the 24th week of pregnancy and who did not, at any time after being completely expelled from its mother, breathe or show any other signs of life.
Early neonatal death: death of a live-born baby occurring less than 7 completed days from the time of birth.
Late neonatal death: death of a live-born baby occurring from the 7th day of life and before 28 completed days from the time of birth.
Stillbirth rate: number of stillbirths per 1000 live births and stillbirths.
Perinatal mortality rate (UK): number of stillbirths and early neonatal deaths per 1000 live births and stillbirths.
Perinatal mortality rate (WHO): number of late fetal losses, stillbirths, and early neonatal deaths per 1000 live births and stillbirths.
Neonatal mortality rate: number of neonatal deaths per 1000 live births (this may be adjusted to take into account babies with congenital abnormalities, and then referred to as ‘corrected neonatal mortality rate’).
Primary cause of stillbirths and neonatal deaths in 2009, using the CMACE maternal and fetal classification (excluding termination of pregnancy)
No antecedent or associated obstetric factors 28%.
Placental disorders conditions 12%.
Ante- or intra-partum haemorrhage 11%.
Major congenital anomaly 9%.
Mechanical 8%.
IUGR 7%.
Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy 6%.
Infection 5%.
Maternal disorder 5%.
Specific fetal conditions 4%.
Associated obstetric factors (including preterm labour) 4%.
Unclassified 2%.
Associated obstetric factors (including preterm labour) 27%.
Major congenital anomaly 24%.
No antecedent or associated obstetric factors 12%.
Infection 10%.
Ante- or intra-partum haemorrhage 9%.
Specific fetal conditions 4%.
Mechanical 3%.
Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy 3%.
Unclassified 3%.
Maternal disorder 2%.
IUGR 2%.
Placental disorders conditions 1%.
1954: 23/1000 total births.
1997: 5.3/1000 total births.
2001: 5.4/1000 live births.
2003: 5.7/1000 total births.
2005: 5.3/1000 total births
2007: 5.2/1000 total births.
2009: 5.2/1000 total births.
1954: 18/1000 live births.
1997: 3.9/1000 live births.
2001: 3.7/1000 live births.
2003: 3.7/1000 live births.
2005: 3.4/1000 live births.
2007: 3.3/1000 live births.
2009: 3.2/1000 live births.
Perinatal mortality: key findings
The stillbirth rate in the UK for 2009 was 5.2/1000 total births and has been showing a steady decline over the last 10yrs.
3/4 stillbirths deliver after 28wks gestation.
Stillbirth and neonatal death rates are higher in socially deprived areas.
10% of mothers who had a stillbirth or neonatal death had a BMI >35. CMACE estimates that during 2009, the prevalence of this BMI in the pregnant population was 5%.
Maternal age.
Ethnicity.
Social deprivation.
Gestational age.
Low birth weight.
Multiple pregnancy.
Ethnicity as a risk factor
The stillbirth (SB) rates and neonatal mortality (NNM) rates were shown to be higher for babies of non-white mothers.
Black mothers: SB 2.1 times and NNM 2.4 times higher than Caucasian mothers.
Asian mothers: SB 1.6 times and NNM 1.6 times higher.
Low birth weight as a risk factor
42% of all stillbirths and 25% of all neonatal deaths were <10th birth weight centile.
Multiple births as a risk factor
Multiple births have a 3–4 times higher SB and 6–8 times higher NNM rate than singleton pregnancies.
The cause of stillbirth is clearly different to singletons.
Specific fetal condition: twins 21%, singletons 2%.
Major congenital abnormality: twins 11%, singletons 9%.
Further reading
Centre for Maternal and Child Enquiries (
Maternal mortality: definition
The 9th and 10th revisions of the International Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes (ICD-9/10) define a maternal death as ‘death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of the end of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management, but not from accidental or incidental causes’.
Result from obstetric complications of the pregnant state (pregnancy, labour, and puerperium), from interventions, omissions, incorrect treatment, or from a chain of events resulting from any of the above.
Arise from pre-existing disease or disease that developed during pregnancy and which was not due to direct obstetric causes, but which was aggravated by the physiological effects of pregnancy and includes:
Epilepsy.
Cardiac disease.
Diabetes.
Hormone-dependent malignancies.
Maternal mortality ratio (MMtR)
This is defined as the number of direct and indirect maternal deaths per 100 000 live births.
Death occurring in a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the cause of the death (unlike maternal deaths, this includes accidental and incidental causes).
Death occurring between 42 days and 1yr after termination of pregnancy, miscarriage, or delivery that is due to direct or indirect maternal causes.
Includes accidental or incidental deaths, which would have happened even if the woman was not pregnant, and includes:
Domestic violence.
Road traffic accidents.
The Confidential Enquiry into Maternal Deaths
In 1949, the issue of reporting maternal deaths was raised at the 12th British Congress of Obstetrics and Gynaecology and this led to the establishment of a regional and national assessment by clinicians. A series of triennial reports were instituted to disseminate the findings and recommendations, with a view to reducing maternal deaths and to improve practice. In April 2003, the CEMACH for England and Wales came into existence. In 2009 this became an independent charity, the CMACE. It is commissioned mainly by the National Patient Safety Agency (NPSA) and the primary objective is to review mortality and improve maternal and child health. It assesses causes and trends in maternal deaths to identify avoidable and substandard factors that may have led to these deaths. Based on these findings it makes recommendations and suggestions concerning the improvement of clinical care.
Why is CEMACE important?
Each year more than 20 million women experience ill health as a result of pregnancy, the lives of nearly 8 million are threatened, and over half a million women die as a result of pregnancy.
It is estimated that 88–98% of maternal deaths in the world are avoidable with timely and effective care.
The reporting of such deaths and their causes is important in order to identify avoidable causes and institute recommendations to improve practice.
The recent world estimate of overall MMtR is around 400 per 100 000 live births: in the UK during 2006–08 the MMtR was 11.4:100 000.
261 maternal deaths were reported to the Enquiry:
107 direct maternal deaths
154 indirect deaths
50 coincidental deaths
33 late direct and indirect deaths.
Maternal death in the recent report is lower than in the previous triennium mainly due to the reduction in deaths due to thromboembolism and haemorrhage. However, there has been an increase in deaths due to sepsis and Sudden Adult/Arrhythmic Death Syndrome (SADS). Future reports should be able to ascertain whether this finding is a result of chance, improved case ascertainment or a real increase.
Preconception counselling should be provided for women with pre-existing serious medical or mental health problems, including obesity.
Professional interpretation services should be provided for all pregnant women who do not speak English.
Referrals to specialist services in pregnancy should be prioritized as urgent.
Women with potentially serious medical conditions require immediate and appropriate multidisciplinary specialist care.
Clinical staff must have improved training in identification and
treatment of serious medical and mental health conditions as well
as improved life support skills.
Routine use of a national obstetric early warning chart for all pregnant or postpartum women.
Women who are pregnant or recently delivered with unexplained pain severe enough to need opiate analgesia require urgent senior review.
All pregnant women with pre-eclampsia and a systolic BP of 150–160mmHg or more require urgent and effective antihypertensive treatment.
All pregnant and recently delivered women need to be informed of the risks and signs and symptoms of genital tract infection and how to prevent its transmission.
All maternal deaths must be subject to a high quality local review.
The standard of maternal autopsy must be improved.
Genital tract sepsis (26).
Hypertensive disease of pregnancy (19).
VTE (18).
Amniotic fluid embolism (13).
Early pregnancy causes (11).
Haemorrhage (9).
Anaesthesia related (7).
Acute fatty liver (3).
Other (1).
Late direct causes (9).
Further reading
Cantwell R, Clutton-Brock T, Cooper G, et al. (
CEMACE: direct deaths I
Genital tract sepsis
Resulted in 26 direct deaths (and 3 late direct deaths).
The mortality rate from sepsis is 1.1:100000 maternities.
Pregnant women with sepsis may present with a variety of symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhoea, and vomiting.
Rise in deaths from sepsis is predominantly a result of community-acquired β-haemolytic streptococcus Lancefield Group A (Streptococcus pyogenes).
See 
Puerperal pyrexia: genital causes, p. 354.
Be aware of sepsis—beware of sepsis.
Staff must be aware of the signs and symptoms of critical illness.
Onset may be insidious and carers need to be alert to changes that may indicate developing infection.
High-dose broad-spectrum antibiotics should be started immediately without waiting for microbiology results.
Guidelines for detection, investigation, and management of suspected sepsis should be available to all healthcare professionals who deal with pregnant or post-partum women.
Pre-eclampsia and eclampsia
There were 19 deaths recorded from hypertensive disease of pregnancy—14 from cerebral causes, 3 from liver complications, 2 from multi-organ failure.
See 
Pre-eclampsia: overview, p. 64.
Headache or epigastric pain is pre-eclampsia until proven otherwise.
Any discussions must explicitly mention the systolic BP.
Systolic BP ≥150mmHg requires effective antihypertensives.
Systolic BP of >180mmHg is a medical emergency.
Oxytocin not Syntometrine® should be used for 3rd stage.
Severe pre-eclampsia needs effective team communication.
Venous thromboembolism
There were 18 deaths from VTE (and 4 late direct deaths): 16 from PE; 2 from cerebral vein thrombosis.
Risk factors were identified in 16 of the 18 women.
See Venous thromboembolism: overview, p. 390)
Obesity remains the most important risk for thromboembolism.
Early risk assessment remains key in reducing mortality.
Vulnerable women need help administering thromboprophylaxis.
Chest symptoms appearing for the first time in at-risk women need careful assessment and low threshold for investigation.
Red flag signs and symptoms requiring urgent hospital referral:
pyrexia >38°C
sustained tachycardia >100 beats/min
breathlessness—1 relative risk (RR) >20 is a serious symptom
abdominal or chest pain
diarrhoea and/or vomiting
reduced fetal movements or absent fetal heart
spontaneous rupture of membranes or significant vaginal discharge
uterine or renal angle pain and tenderness
if woman generally unwell or unduly anxious, distressed, panicky.
A normal temperature does not exclude sepsis as pyrexia may be marked by paracetamol and other analgesics.
Infection must be actively ruled out in a recently delivered woman with persistent bleeding and abdominal pain.
Any concerns warrant referral back to a maternity unit.
Red flag features requiring urgent hospital referral:
Breathlessness of sudden onset.
Breathlessness with chest pain.
Orthopnoea or paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea.
In normal women oxygen saturation does not fall below 95% on exercise.
Never assume that wheeze on auscultation represents asthma, it could be pulmonary oedema.
Red flag signs suggestive of sinister pathology associated with headache:
Sudden onset.
Neck stiffness.
Any abnormal signs on neurological examination.
Headache that is ‘the worst that the woman has ever experienced’ is an indication for urgent brain imaging even in the absence of any other features because of concern about cerebral venous thrombosis.
CEMACE: direct deaths II
Amniotic fluid embolism
Perform all maternal autopsies as soon as possible—if delayed, diagnosis becomes difficult if not impossible.
The diagnosis must be confirmed using immunochemistry.
If no squames can be found search for mucins.
All cases suspected or confirmed should be reported to the National AFE register at [email protected].
13 deaths were due to AFE (died since the last report).
See Amniotic fluid embolism: overview, p. 398.
Haemorrhage
There were 9 maternal deaths from haemorrhage reported (see Massive obstetric haemorrhage: medical management, p. 386).
Regular training on identifying and managing haemorrhage.
Early senior multidisciplinary team involvement.
Clinicians must be aware of guidelines for management of women refusing blood products.
MEOW charts should be used for 24h post-CS.
Women with previous CS must have placental site determined with attempts to diagnose accreta or percreta (USS + MRI).
Admit women with major placenta praevia who have bled from 34wks gestation.
▶ Anaemia magnifies effect of haemorrhage. Treat antenatally using parenteral iron therapy if unresponsive to oral iron.
Early pregnancy deaths
11 deaths resulted from early pregnancy causes: 6 due to ectopic pregnancy; 5 following haemorrhagic complications of spontaneous miscarriage.
All women of reproductive age presenting to Emergency departments with gastrointestinal symptoms must have a pregnancy test.
Clinical staff must be aware that gastrointestinal symptoms, particularly diarrhoea and dizziness, are important symptoms of ectopic pregnancy.
Abandon term ‘pregnancy of unknown location’. If no intrauterine sac seen on USS, active exclusion of ectopic pregnancy must begin.
Abortion care must include strategy for minimizing risk of sepsis.
CEMACE: indirect causes of death
Cardiac disease is not only the most common cause of indirect maternal death, but also the commonest cause of death overall.
Cardiac disease in pregnancy (i)
53 deaths were recorded that resulted from heart disease (↑ rate). A further 8 deaths are included in the late deaths.
The leading causes of death are now:
SADS
myocardial infarction
dissection of the thoracic aorta
cardiomyopathy.
Deaths from congenital heart disease continue to decrease (3).
See Cardiac disease: management in pregnancy, p. 192.
Women with cardiac disease must be cared for in a unit with a joint obstetric/cardiology clinic.
Low threshold for investigating women with symptoms of MI or aortic dissection especially if they are obese, smoke, or have hypertension.
ABGs showing hypoxaemia and a metabolic acidosis is a feature of reduced cardiac output secondary to cardiac disease.
Other indirect causes of death
88 other indirect deaths were recorded, including:
Diseases of the central nervous system (34):
epilepsy (14)
subarachnoid haemorrhage (6)
intracerebral haemorrhage (5).
Infectious diseases (7):
HIV infection (2).
Diseases of the respiratory system (9):
asthma (5).
Endocrine, metabolic, and immunity disorders (9):
diabetes (3).
Diseases of the gastrointestinal system:
pancreatitis.
Diseases of the blood (3).
Diseases of the circulatory system (4).
Indirect malignancies (3).
Cause unknown (6).
Other (2).
Ischaemic heart disease has become a common cause of death.
All the women who died had identifiable risk factors, including:
obesity
age (>35) and higher parity (>3)
smoking
diabetes
pre-existing hypertension
family history of ischaemic heart disease.
MI and acute coronary syndrome can have an atypical presentation in pregnancy (abdominal or epigastric pain and vomiting).
A single normal ECG does not exclude ischaemia, especially if taken when the patient is pain free.
There should be a low threshold for investigating symptoms especially in women with risk factors.
There should also be a low threshold for emergency coronary intervention (such as angioplasty and stenting).
See Myocardial infarction and cardiomyopathy, p. 197.
All women with serious medical conditions should receive prepregnancy counselling.
All women with serious medical conditions should be referred to a specialist as early as possible.
Lack of consultant involvement remains a problem; protocols should be developed specifying conditions that mandate consultant review.
Anyone caring for unfamiliar conditions should consult experts.
Medical conditions can cause symptoms that are more commonly obstetric related, e.g. epilepsy can cause fits as well as eclampsia.
Multiple attendances are signs of serious undiagnosed disease or social problems.
Undiagnosed pain requiring opiate analgesia demands immediate consultant input.
Physicians not working directly with pregnant women need to know more about the interaction between their condition and pregnancy.
Professional translation services must be made available to women who do not speak English.
CEMACE: psychiatric illness and domestic abuse
Deaths from psychiatric illnesses
There were 29 deaths due to suicide during pregnancy and in the first 6mths post-partum.
The majority died violently, e.g. hanging or jumping from a height.
Over 50% of the maternal suicides were white, married, employed, living in comfortable circumstances, and aged 30yrs or older.
See Antenatal psychiatric disorders: overview, p. 446.
Care needs to be taken not to equate suicide risk with socio-economic deprivation.
All women should be asked about past history of psychiatric illness at booking, referred appropriately, and monitored for at least 3mths after delivery.
Psychiatric services should have priority pathways for pregnant women.
Risk assessment should be modified to take into account the distinctive picture of perinatal disorders and violent method of suicide.
All mental health trusts should have specialized perinatal teams.
Caution must be exercised when diagnosing a psychiatric cause for unexplained physical symptoms or distress and agitation.
▶ This is especially important when the woman does not speak English as a first language.
Domestic abuse
Domestic abuse is an important issue in obstetrics.
34 deaths from ‘all causes’ had features of domestic abuse:
many had self-reported domestic abuse
38% were poor attenders or late bookers.
11 women were murdered, 7 by their partners.
Enquiries about domestic violence should be routinely included at booking, with appropriate methods of recording in the notes that protects the woman from further harm, and further referral strategies.
Women should be seen alone at least once in the antenatal period.
Any member of the maternity team noticing an injury, e.g. a black eye, should ask sympathetically, but directly about domestic abuse.
Information about local agencies and emergency helplines should be displayed in areas where women can have access to them.
Women known to suffer from domestic violence are not ‘low risk’.
It must be remembered that healthcare professionals may themselves be victims: domestic abuse occurs across all social classes and within all ethnic groups.
Any incident of threatening behaviour or abuse (psychological, physical, sexual, financial, or emotional) between adults who are or have been intimate partners or family members, regardless of gender or sexuality.
Late booking and/or poor or non-attendance at antenatal clinic.
Repeat attendance at antenatal clinic, GP surgery, or A&E for minor injuries, or trivial or non-existent complaints.
Unexplained admissions.
Non-compliance with treatment regimens or early self-discharge from hospital.
Repeat presentation with depression, anxiety, self-harm, and psychosomatic symptoms.
Injuries that are untended and of several different ages, especially to the neck, head, breasts, abdomen, and genitals.
Minimalization of signs of abuse on the body.
STIs and frequent vaginal or urinary tract infections and pelvic pain.
Poor obstetric history:
repeated miscarriages or TOPs
stillbirth or preterm labour
preterm birth, IUGR, low birth weight
unwanted or unplanned pregnancy.
The constant presence at examinations of the partner, who may be domineering, answer all the questions for her, and be unwilling to leave the room.
The woman appears evasive or reluctant to speak or disagree in front of her partner.
Digested data in this topic are reproduced from CEMACE. (2011). Saving mothers’ lives. The 8th report on Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in the UK. With the permission of the Centre of Maternal and Child Enquires.
Digested data in this topic are reproduced from CEMACE. (2011). Saving mothers’ lives. The 8th report on Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in the UK. With the permission of the Centre of Maternal and Child Enquires.
Digested data in this topic are reproduced from CEMACE. (2011). Saving mothers’ lives. The 8th report on Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in the UK. With the permission of the Centre of Maternal and Child Enquires.
Digested data in this topic are reproduced from CEMACE. (2011). Saving mothers’ lives. The 8th report on Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in the UK. With the permission of the Centre of Maternal and Child Enquires.
