The future of industrial hydrogen: renewable sources and applications for the next 15 years

Abstract

This paper explores the potential industrial applications of hydrogen produced from renewable sources, focusing on anticipated advancements and adoption over the next 15 years. With the global shift toward defossilation, renewable hydrogen presents a compelling solution to reduce industrial greenhouse gas emissions. The article examines various production methods, cost projections, technological challenges, and key industries that will benefit from renewable hydrogen integration. Renewable hydrogen is anticipated to play a critical role in industrial defossilation over the next 15 years. As industries and governments seek to meet climate targets, hydrogen’s versatility as a fuel and feedstock positions it well for applications across various sectors, including heavy industry, transportation, and power generation. Challenges remain in cost, efficiency, and infrastructure, but ongoing advancements in electrolysis technology and supportive policies are expected to drive down costs. Successful deployment will also depend on international collaboration, regulatory frameworks, and public acceptance. The case studies and pilot projects highlighted in this paper provide evidence of the promising future for renewable hydrogen in industrial applications.

1. Introduction

As the global community intensifies efforts to mitigate climate change, the industrial sector faces increasing pressure to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Industrial activities contribute significantly to global CO₂ emissions, with sectors like steel, cement, and chemicals being particularly carbon-intensive due to their reliance on fossil fuels. Hydrogen, especially when produced from renewable sources, has emerged as a promising alternative to fossil fuels, offering a cleaner pathway for industries to defossil.

The shift to renewable hydrogen aligns with international goals such as the Paris Agreement and various net-zero pledges made by countries worldwide [1]. Over the next 15 years, advancements in hydrogen production, storage, and application technology are expected to transform industrial operations. This paper explores the potential for renewable hydrogen to replace conventional energy sources in the industry, evaluates its production methods, assesses economic and environmental implications, and discusses the necessary policy framework to enable its widespread adoption.

2. Hydrogen production from renewable sources

There are several ways to produce hydrogen, but not all methods are environmentally friendly. Traditional methods, such as steam methane reforming (SMR), rely on fossil fuels and generate significant CO₂ emissions. In contrast, renewable hydrogen production utilizes renewable energy sources and can be nearly carbon-free. Key methods of renewable hydrogen production include the following.

2.1 Electrolysis using renewable energy

Electrolysis is a process that uses electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. When powered by renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, or hydropower, electrolysis becomes a sustainable and carbon-free method of hydrogen production. There are three main types of electrolyzers.

2.1.1 Alkaline electrolyzers

These are the most mature and commercially viable electrolyzers, known for their durability and relatively low cost. Alkaline electrolyzers use a liquid alkaline solution to facilitate the electrolysis process, making them suitable for large-scale applications.

2.1.2 Proton exchange membrane electrolyzers

Proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers operate at higher efficiencies and can respond quickly to changes in electricity supply, making them ideal for coupling with intermittent renewable energy sources. However, PEM electrolyzers are more expensive than alkaline systems due to the use of precious metals like platinum.

2.1.3 Solid oxide electrolyzers

Solid oxide electrolyzers work at high temperatures and can achieve high efficiencies. They are particularly promising for industrial applications where waste heat can be utilized. However, their high operational temperature and cost currently limit their widespread use [2].

Recent developments in electrolyzer technology have significantly reduced costs, and further innovations are expected over the next decade. By 2030, renewable hydrogen produced via electrolysis is anticipated to reach cost parity with conventional hydrogen, driven by economies of scale and falling renewable energy prices [3].

2.2 Biomass gasification

Biomass gasification involves converting organic materials, such as agricultural waste or forestry residues, into hydrogen. This process uses high temperatures in a controlled environment to produce a hydrogen-rich syngas, which is then processed to extract hydrogen. While not entirely carbon-free, biomass gasification can be carbon-neutral if sustainable biomass sources are used, as the CO₂ emitted during the process is offset by the CO₂ absorbed by the biomass during its growth phase [1].

Biomass gasification has the potential to complement other hydrogen production methods, particularly in regions with abundant biomass resources. It also offers the advantage of using waste materials, contributing to a circular economy.

2.3 Photocatalytic water splitting

Photocatalytic water splitting is an emerging technology that uses sunlight and specialized catalysts to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. This method mimics natural photosynthesis and holds great promise due to its simplicity and reliance on abundant solar energy. However, photocatalytic water splitting is still in the research and development stage, and significant challenges related to efficiency and scalability remain. If these challenges are overcome, photocatalytic water splitting could become a low-cost and widely accessible method of producing renewable hydrogen [1].

3. Cost analysis and economic viability

The cost of producing renewable hydrogen has been a significant barrier to its widespread adoption. However, recent advancements in technology and supportive government policies have led to rapid cost reductions. The following analysis provides a snapshot of the current costs associated with renewable hydrogen production, projected cost trends, and factors that influence economic viability.

3.1 Current costs of renewable hydrogen production

As of 2023, renewable hydrogen production costs typically range between $4 and $6 per kilogram, depending largely on the region, energy source, and production method. By comparison, hydrogen produced from natural gas through SMR costs between $1 and $2 per kilogram, making it significantly cheaper [2]. However, SMR is not environmentally friendly, as it generates approximately 10 kg of CO₂ per kilogram of hydrogen produced [3].

Electrolysis, especially when powered by solar or wind energy, remains the most promising pathway for renewable hydrogen. The costs associated with this method are driven by the price of electricity, which can account for up to 60%–70% of the total production cost. In areas with abundant and cheap renewable energy, such as regions with high solar irradiance or wind potential, production costs can fall on the lower end of the spectrum.

3.2 Cost reduction pathways

The cost of renewable hydrogen is expected to decline over the next 15 years, thanks to a combination of technological advancements, scaling of electrolyzer manufacturing, and reductions in renewable electricity costs. Several key factors contribute to this trend:

3.2.1 Electrolyzer cost reduction

The global electrolyzer market is experiencing rapid growth, which is driving down manufacturing costs. Innovations in materials and improvements in design are also increasing efficiency and durability, further lowering costs. By 2030, electrolyzer costs are expected to decline by as much as 60%.

3.2.2 Decreasing renewable energy costs

The cost of solar and wind energy has been declining steadily due to technological advancements, economies of scale, and increased competition. The International Renewable Energy Agency projects that by 2030, solar and wind could become the cheapest sources of electricity globally, which will reduce the operational costs of renewable hydrogen production.

3.2.3 Government policies and incentives

Many governments are offering incentives, such as subsidies, tax breaks, and grants, to support renewable hydrogen production. These policies are essential for bridging the cost gap between renewable and conventional hydrogen in the near term.

3.3 Projected costs for the next 15 years

Based on current trends, the cost of renewable hydrogen is projected to fall to approximately $1.50–$2.50 per kilogram by 2030, reaching parity with conventional hydrogen. This cost reduction will be driven by advancements in electrolyzer technology, lower renewable energy prices, and supportive policy frameworks [4]. Achieving these cost targets is crucial for renewable hydrogen to become competitive in industrial applications, where cost efficiency is paramount.

4. Technological challenges and solutions

While the outlook for renewable hydrogen is promising, several technological challenges must be addressed to enable its widespread industrial adoption. These challenges include storage and transportation, infrastructure development, and efficiency improvements.

4.1 Storage and transportation

Hydrogen is challenging to store and transport due to its low energy density and the need for high-pressure or cryogenic conditions. Currently, hydrogen is stored as either a compressed gas or a liquid.

4.1.1 Compressed gas storage

Hydrogen can be stored in high-pressure tanks at pressures up to 700 bar. While this method is mature, it requires significant energy for compression and large, robust storage containers.

4.1.2 Liquid hydrogen storage

Liquefying hydrogen involves cooling it to −253°C, which requires a substantial amount of energy. While liquid hydrogen offers higher energy density than compressed gas, the process is energy-intensive and expensive [5].

4.1.3 Ammonia and liquid organic hydrogen carriers

Ammonia and liquid organic hydrogen carriers are alternative storage methods being explored. They allow hydrogen to be stored and transported more easily, as they can be handled under standard temperature and pressure conditions. However, these methods require additional processing steps to extract hydrogen, which can impact overall efficiency.

4.2 Infrastructure development

The lack of infrastructure for hydrogen production, storage, and distribution is a major barrier to its adoption. Significant investments are needed to develop a network of pipelines, refueling stations, and storage facilities. This is especially important for industries that require large quantities of hydrogen, such as steel manufacturing and chemical production.

4.2.1 Pipelines

Existing natural gas pipelines can sometimes be repurposed for hydrogen, but hydrogen’s small molecular size can cause embrittlement in steel pipes. Therefore, new pipelines specifically designed for hydrogen may be required, which can be costly and time-consuming to build [6].

4.2.2 Refueling stations

For transportation applications, the deployment of hydrogen refueling stations is essential. These stations are costly to build and maintain, and their establishment requires coordinated efforts from both the private and public sectors.

4.2.3 Large-scale storage facilities

Large-scale storage of hydrogen is crucial for buffering supply and demand fluctuations, particularly in industrial applications. Salt caverns, depleted gas fields, and specialized tanks are among the options for large-scale hydrogen storage, but they involve high initial investment and careful site selection.

4.3 Efficiency improvements

Efficiency losses occur at multiple stages of the hydrogen production and utilization process. Electrolysis, for example, is currently around 70%–80% efficient, while fuel cells operate at roughly 40%–60% efficiency [2]. Efforts are ongoing to improve these efficiencies through better materials, system designs, and heat recovery methods.

4.3.1 Advanced electrolyzer materials

Research into new materials, such as advanced catalysts and membranes, is ongoing to improve the efficiency of electrolyzers and reduce costs.

4.3.2 Heat recovery systems

Waste heat generated during hydrogen production and utilization can be harnessed to improve overall system efficiency. Combined heat and power systems, for example, can recover heat from fuel cells to provide heating and power simultaneously.

4.3.2 Energy storage innovations

Integrating hydrogen production with other renewable energy storage solutions, such as batteries, can help improve overall energy system efficiency and balance the intermittency of renewables.

5. Industrial applications

Renewable hydrogen has a wide range of industrial applications due to its versatility as a fuel, reducing agent, and energy storage medium. Below are some of the most significant sectors poised to benefit from renewable hydrogen over the next 15 years.

5.1 Heavy industry (steel, cement, chemicals)

The heavy industry sector, particularly steel and cement production, is among the largest emitters of CO₂. Renewable hydrogen presents a promising solution to decarbonize these industries.

5.1.1 Steel production

Hydrogen can be used as a reducing agent in the steelmaking process, replacing coal in blast furnaces. This process, known as direct reduced iron (DRI) using hydrogen, can significantly lower carbon emissions. Major steel producers have already initiated pilot projects using hydrogen in DRI processes, and commercial-scale adoption is expected within the next decade [7].

5.1.2 Cement production

Although less established than steel, hydrogen could potentially serve as a fuel in cement kilns, which currently rely heavily on coal and other fossil fuels. While challenges remain in scaling and achieving high-temperature requirements, hydrogen-based cement production is a promising area of research [8].

5.1.3 Chemical industry

Hydrogen is a key feedstock for ammonia and methanol production, both of which are essential chemicals for fertilizers and various industrial applications. By shifting to renewable hydrogen, the chemical industry can significantly reduce its carbon footprint.

5.2 Transportation (shipping, aviation, heavy vehicles)

For transportation applications where electrification is challenging, renewable hydrogen is an appealing alternative:

5.2.1 Shipping

Hydrogen and hydrogen-based fuels, like ammonia, are increasingly viewed as viable solutions for decarbonizing the shipping sector [9]. These fuels can power fuel cells or internal combustion engines in ships, offering a cleaner alternative to traditional marine fuels.

5.2.2 Aviation

Hydrogen has potential as a long-term solution for decarbonizing aviation, either as a direct fuel in hydrogen-powered aircraft or as a feedstock for synthetic jet fuels. While hydrogen-powered aviation is still in the research phase, advancements are being made in aircraft design and fuel storage to enable future adoption.

5.2.3 Heavy vehicles

Hydrogen fuel cells are well suited for heavy-duty vehicles, such as trucks and buses, where battery weight and charging times are limiting factors. Many companies are investing in hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), and their deployment is expected to grow, especially for long-haul transportation [8].

5.3 Power generation and grid stability

Hydrogen can also play a crucial role in power generation, particularly in stabilizing grids that rely heavily on intermittent renewable energy sources like wind and solar.

5.3.1 Backup power and seasonal storage

Hydrogen can be stored and used to produce electricity during periods of low renewable generation, providing backup power and enhancing grid reliability.

5.3.2 Power-to-gas systems

These systems convert excess renewable electricity into hydrogen, which can then be stored or injected into natural gas grids [10]. Power-to-gas systems offer a solution for managing surplus renewable energy and reducing reliance on fossil fuels.

6. Environmental and social impacts

The transition to renewable hydrogen not only has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions but also brings additional environmental and social considerations.

6.1 Greenhouse gas emission reduction

Renewable hydrogen can substantially reduce CO₂ emissions across various sectors, helping industries meet their defossilation targets. By replacing fossil fuels in processes like steel production and providing low-carbon fuel options for transportation, renewable hydrogen contributes to global efforts to mitigate climate change.

6.2 Water usage and sustainability

Producing hydrogen through electrolysis requires water, which raises concerns about resource availability, especially in water-scarce regions [6]. Although the water requirements for hydrogen production are relatively modest compared to other industrial processes, ensuring sustainable water use is essential, particularly as hydrogen production scales up.

6.3 Public perception and acceptance

As hydrogen infrastructure and applications grow, public perception and acceptance will play a key role in its success. Safety concerns, particularly around hydrogen storage and handling, need to be addressed through public education and stringent safety regulations [5]. Community engagement is also vital for projects that involve hydrogen production or distribution infrastructure.

7. Policy and regulatory framework

To facilitate the industrial adoption of renewable hydrogen, a supportive policy environment is essential. Governments play a critical role in accelerating hydrogen deployment through incentives, subsidies, regulations, and international collaborations. The following aspects outline the policy landscape needed to advance renewable hydrogen over the next 15 years.

7.1 Government incentives and subsidies

Numerous countries have implemented policies to support renewable hydrogen, ranging from direct subsidies for hydrogen production to tax incentives for businesses adopting hydrogen technologies. For instance, the European Union’s Green Deal includes substantial funding for hydrogen infrastructure, with a target of producing 10 million tons of renewable hydrogen by 2030 [10]. Similarly, the USA has introduced tax credits for hydrogen production under the Inflation Reduction Act, aiming to make green hydrogen competitive with traditional energy sources.

Subsidies and incentives are crucial for reducing the upfront costs associated with hydrogen production, storage, and transportation. These measures also encourage private investment by reducing financial risks for companies entering the hydrogen market. In the long term, government support can help create a self-sustaining market where renewable hydrogen competes on cost and performance with fossil fuels.

7.2 International collaborations and agreements

Global cooperation is vital to developing a cohesive hydrogen economy. Many countries have signed agreements to cooperate on hydrogen technology development, standardization, and infrastructure deployment. For example, the Hydrogen Energy Ministerial Meeting, held annually, fosters dialogue among countries to coordinate hydrogen strategies. Additionally, the International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy is an initiative that promotes information sharing and best practices on hydrogen technologies among member countries.

Collaborations between hydrogen-producing and hydrogen-importing countries are also emerging. Nations like Japan and South Korea, which have limited renewable energy resources, are establishing partnerships with countries like Australia and Saudi Arabia to secure renewable hydrogen imports. These agreements are essential for creating a global hydrogen supply chain and ensuring that hydrogen can be produced where resources are abundant and transported to where it is needed [4].

7.3 Safety standards and regulations

As hydrogen infrastructure expands, establishing robust safety standards and regulations is essential to ensure safe production, storage, and distribution. Hydrogen’s flammability and the challenges associated with its storage require stringent safety protocols. Organizations such as the International Organization for Standardization and the International Electrotechnical Commission are developing international safety standards for hydrogen, covering everything from fuel quality to handling protocols.

National governments also need to create regulatory frameworks that address issues such as hydrogen blending in natural gas pipelines, transportation regulations, and public safety measures. These regulations must be clear, consistent, and adaptable to new technological developments to promote safe and widespread hydrogen use [5].

8. Case studies and pilot projects

Several groundbreaking projects around the world demonstrate the feasibility of renewable hydrogen for industrial applications and highlight pathways to scaling these technologies. These case studies provide insights into how hydrogen can decarbonize various industries and showcase the infrastructure, partnerships, and technologies required for widespread adoption. Below are some of the most notable examples:

8.1 H₂ Green Steel, Sweden

The H₂ Green Steel project is one of the most ambitious efforts to decarbonize the steel industry. Launched in northern Sweden, the project aims to produce green steel by replacing coal with renewable hydrogen as the reducing agent in the DRI process. With the potential to reduce CO₂ emissions by up to 95% compared to traditional steelmaking, H₂ Green Steel is a model for low-emission steel production [11].

H2 Green Steel also leverages Sweden’s abundant renewable energy resources, including hydropower and wind, to power its electrolyzers. The project’s first phase, scheduled for completion by 2025, will produce 2.5 million tons of green steel annually. The company plans to scale production to 5 million tons per year by 2030 [7]. This project has attracted investment from various stakeholders, including the European Union, and has established partnerships with major companies like Mercedes-Benz and Scania, which are committed to purchasing green steel to reduce their supply-chain emissions.

The success of H₂ Green Steel could catalyze similar projects in other regions, particularly those with access to renewable energy. According to Fasihi et al. [12], scaling up hydrogen-based steel production in areas with renewable resources is a feasible pathway for meeting global steel demand while reducing emissions.

8.2 Port of Rotterdam, The Netherlands

The Port of Rotterdam is developing a comprehensive hydrogen hub that serves as a blueprint for integrating renewable hydrogen into industrial clusters. As one of Europe’s largest industrial centers, the Port of Rotterdam has partnered with companies and governments to create infrastructure for hydrogen production, storage, and distribution. The port’s strategy includes plans to import renewable hydrogen from countries with abundant renewable resources, such as Chile and Australia, and distribute it across Europe using a dedicated hydrogen pipeline network [9].

The project includes large-scale electrolyzers to produce green hydrogen locally and a network of storage facilities and refueling stations to support the transportation sector. By 2030, the Port of Rotterdam aims to produce and import over 4.6 million tons of renewable hydrogen annually. The initiative is expected to reduce CO₂ emissions by up to 10 million tons per year, supporting Europe’s defossilation targets and improving energy security [9, 13].

One of the key innovations at the Port of Rotterdam is the integration of hydrogen with existing industrial processes, such as refining and chemical manufacturing. By blending hydrogen with natural gas in pipelines, the port demonstrates the feasibility of incorporating renewable hydrogen into established industrial supply chains. The project also benefits from a robust regulatory framework and support from the European Union, which has identified hydrogen hubs as critical to achieving net-zero emissions by 2050 [13].

8.3 Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field, Japan

The Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field (FH2R) is one of the largest renewable hydrogen production facilities in the world. Located in Namie Town, Fukushima Prefecture, this project is part of Japan’s efforts to revitalize the region following the 2011 nuclear disaster. FH2R uses a 20 MW solar farm to power its electrolyzers, producing up to 1200 normal cubic meters of hydrogen per hour. The hydrogen is then transported to various industrial facilities and used in local FCVs [10].

FH2R is notable not only for its size but also for its focus on integrating hydrogen into local energy systems. The facility operates in a dynamic mode, adjusting hydrogen production based on electricity supply and demand. This flexibility is essential for stabilizing the grid, especially in regions with high renewable energy penetration [10]. FH2R also serves as a testing ground for hydrogen technologies, with research initiatives exploring hydrogen storage, transportation, and fuel cell applications.

Japan has set a goal of producing 10 million tons of hydrogen annually by 2030, with an emphasis on renewable sources like solar and wind. Projects like FH2R are critical for achieving this goal and for positioning Japan as a leader in hydrogen technology. According to Bhandari et al. [4], Japan’s focus on hydrogen infrastructure and technology development could serve as a model for other countries looking to establish a hydrogen economy.

8.4 HyNet North West, UK

HyNet North West is an integrated hydrogen and carbon capture project in the UK that aims to decarbonize the industrial region of North West England. Unlike other projects that focus solely on green hydrogen, HyNet produces blue hydrogen by reforming natural gas and capturing the resulting CO₂ emissions for storage in depleted gas fields. This approach provides a transition pathway to hydrogen adoption while renewable hydrogen production scales up [13].

The project includes plans for a hydrogen pipeline network that will connect industrial sites, power stations, and transportation hubs. By 2030, HyNet aims to produce 3 million tons of low-carbon hydrogen annually, which will reduce CO₂ emissions by up to 10 million tons per year. The project has received funding from the UK government and partnerships with companies like Cadent, which specializes in gas distribution networks [14].

HyNet North West demonstrates the importance of integrating carbon capture and storage (CCS) with hydrogen production to achieve substantial emission reductions. While green hydrogen is the ultimate goal, blue hydrogen provides an immediate solution for reducing emissions in existing industrial processes, making HyNet a valuable case study in the phased adoption of hydrogen technologies [12].

8.5 Hydrogen Energy Supply Chain Project, Australia and Japan

The Hydrogen Energy Supply Chain (HESC) project is a collaboration between Australia and Japan aimed at creating a fully integrated hydrogen supply chain. The project involves producing hydrogen from brown coal in Australia, liquefying it, and shipping it to Japan, where it will be used in power generation and other applications. Although this project currently uses fossil fuel-based hydrogen, it includes a commitment to incorporate CCS, with the ultimate goal of transitioning to green hydrogen as renewable capacity increases [2].

HESC represents one of the first efforts to establish an international hydrogen supply chain, addressing the logistical and technical challenges of transporting hydrogen over long distances. The project’s initial phase is focused on establishing the necessary infrastructure, including liquefaction facilities, specialized hydrogen carriers, and storage tanks [3]. Japan’s interest in HESC aligns with its broader strategy of importing hydrogen from countries with abundant natural resources, a model that could be replicated as global demand for hydrogen grows [4].

8.6 Renewable Hydrogen Roadmap, Chile

Chile has launched a Renewable Hydrogen Roadmap with the goal of becoming one of the world’s largest hydrogen exporters. The country’s unique geographical features, such as the Atacama Desert, provide some of the world’s highest solar irradiance, making it ideal for low-cost solar-powered electrolysis. Chile aims to produce 25 GW of renewable hydrogen by 2030, with plans to export to regions like Europe and Asia, where demand for clean hydrogen is growing [8].

To support this initiative, the Chilean government has created a regulatory framework and offered incentives for renewable hydrogen projects. The Renewable Hydrogen Roadmap includes pilot projects for green hydrogen production, with partnerships involving both local and international companies. Chile’s efforts illustrate how countries with abundant renewable resources can play a crucial role in the global hydrogen economy, providing clean hydrogen to countries with limited renewable energy capacity [14].

These case studies illustrate the diverse approaches being taken to develop renewable hydrogen infrastructure around the world. From green steel production in Sweden to hydrogen hubs in Europe and ambitious hydrogen export plans in Chile, these projects demonstrate the feasibility of using hydrogen to decarbonize a range of industries. Each project also highlights the importance of government support, international partnerships, and technological innovation in accelerating hydrogen adoption.

According to the International Energy Agency [13], these pilot projects are not only vital for reducing emissions but also for driving down the costs of renewable hydrogen, making it more accessible and economically viable for widespread use. As these projects expand and more initiatives are launched, renewable hydrogen is poised to become a key component of the global energy system over the next 15 years.

9. Future outlook and conclusion

The next 15 years are critical for establishing renewable hydrogen as a viable solution for industrial defossilation. Technological advancements, cost reductions, and supportive policy frameworks will drive the widespread adoption of hydrogen across various sectors. Renewable hydrogen has the potential to play a key role in achieving global net-zero targets by providing a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels for industries that are difficult to electrify [12].

As hydrogen technology matures and the cost of renewable hydrogen continues to decline, its applications are likely to expand beyond heavy industry and transportation. Hydrogen could contribute to grid stability, energy storage, and distributed power generation, supporting a transition to a fully renewable energy system. However, realizing this potential will require coordinated efforts from governments, industries, and international organizations to address the remaining challenges in infrastructure, safety, and public perception.

In conclusion, renewable hydrogen offers a promising pathway to reduce industrial emissions and meet global climate goals. While challenges remain, the increasing investment in hydrogen technologies, coupled with favorable policy environments, suggests that renewable hydrogen will become an integral part of the industrial landscape by 2040. The ongoing pilot projects and collaborations provide valuable insights into scaling hydrogen solutions, positioning renewable hydrogen as a cornerstone of the future low-carbon economy [14].

Conflict of interest statement

None declared.

Funding

None declared.

References