From Genghis Khan to Tamerlane: The Reawakening of Mongol Asia By Peter Jackson

Peter Jackson’s new book is a detailed study of Turco-Mongolian rule in the Islamic world from the later years of the Ilkhanate through the reign of the conqueror and dynastic founder Timur, or Tamerlane. This is a work of exemplary scholarship, deeply researched and based on an exceptional variety of sources stemming from an array of regions, with an equally wide and deep coverage of secondary literature.

The book begins with a discussion of the sources, then devotes the first of its three major parts to Mongol rule. The author devotes a chapter to a review of the Mongol Empire from its founding to the fall of the Ilkhanate in 1335, and another to the question of Islamization, before proceeding to his major focus, the crisis of the Mongol world in the later fourteenth century. In ch. 4, ‘The crisis of the Mongol world: Chinggisid rule on the wane’, he analyses the weakening of the Chinggisid dynasty and reasons for the appearance of tribal and other non-Chinggisid rulers through much of the Mongol empire. Chapter 5, ‘The crisis of the Mongol world: economic turbulence and demographic disaster’, examines non-political reasons for Mongol decline; this includes an analysis of the currency crisis of the period and a particularly full and interesting discussion of the Black Death, its origin, spread, and impact. Here Jackson concludes that the Mongol dominions in Iran were generally less affected by the plague than either the Mamluk realm or Europe; its impact on other parts of the Mongol empire is harder to determine. The plague, he believes, affected both nomad and settled populations, and its ultimate effect on Mongol power is difficult to determine.

Part II covers the history of greater Iran and Central Asia in the decades before the reign of Timur. Here Jackson gives a political history of the non-Chinggisid regional dynasties in Iran, including well-known Iranian dynasties such as the Kartids and Muzaffarids, Turkmen dynasties and begliks in Anatolia— Āq-qūyūnlū, Qarā-qūyūnlū, and others—and the less often discussed nomad powers in eastern Iran, such as the Jāʾun-i Qurbān and the Mongols of Quhistan. The focus of this part is on political narrative but Jackson draws some general conclusions, most notably arguing against the belief that the rule of Iranian dynasties such as the Kartids, Muzaffarids, and Injuids should be seen as an ‘Iranian interlude’, in which the idea of a unified Iran was cultivated. He points out here that the ruling houses of these dynasties began as servitors of the Mongols, intermarried with the Chinggisids, and were versed in Mongol political culture.

The final chapter of this part, ‘Timur’s forebears and the elite of the Chaghadayid realm’, examines the politics and ideology of the Chaghadayid region, with particular attention to the place of Timur’s tribe and lineage within it. After a careful review of the available primary and secondary literature, Jackson concludes that despite the claims of later Timurid sources, Timur’s tribe, the Barlas, was not among the most prominent tribes of the Ulus, pointing out that there are no known marriages between the Barlas and members of the Chaghadayid dynasty. He also finds that Timur’s own lineage was not distinguished within the tribe itself. Thus, Timur was a self-made man, as suggested by some outside sources, but denied by histories written within the Timurid realm. This chapter also provides an excellent description of the nomad elites within the Chaghadayid khanate, both tribal and non-tribal.

The third and final part of the book is devoted to Timur’s career. Here the organization is generally analytical rather than narrative. Chapter 9, ‘The making of the Great Amir and a ruling cadre’, sets Timur’s life within the frame of the complicated and tumultuous politics of the Chaghadayid Ulus. Jackson discusses the tribal and non-tribal powers of the Ulus and Timur’s creation of a new elite dependent on him, as well as Timur’s sons and the positions they were granted, noting his relatively lenient treatment of disloyal acts both by tribes and by Timur’s own progeny. The next chapter, which covers Timur’s campaigns, is organized by region, starting with those which attracted Timur’s attention first, and ending with the expedition against China. Thus, the narrative, though roughly chronological, jumps back and forth in time, as different regions were revisited. This account is followed by a chapter on the building of empire and the conduct of war. Here Jackson concludes that the major goal of Timur’s campaigns was loot, and that this fact militated against the creation of a stable empire. Armaments and tactics are briefly described; the author points out, interestingly, that the sources offer little information on Timur’s tactics, though his ability to inspire loyalty among his troops is clear. Like Chinggis Khan, Timur made systematic and theatrical use of terror, and here Jackson finds that he outdid his predecessor in the ferocity of his punishment of recalcitrant cities, though he was also quicker to restore cities and agriculture after conquest.

In ch. 12, ‘The Qarachu warlord and the imperial Chinggisids’, Jackson addresses the question of Timur’s relations with his puppet khans. He suggests that these khans held more power and prestige than earlier scholars have thought, pointing out that Timur gave them a prominent place in his entourage, and they took part in his campaigns. Timur’s failure to appoint a khan to replace Sultan Mahmud should therefore not be seen as a bid for independence; the end of the khanship was a decision made by his successors. Although the khans Timur appointed were descendants of Ögedei, not Chaghadai, Jackson considers this choice coincidental, and believes that Timur was primarily aiming to gather and enlarge the Chaghadayid realm. Timur also laid claim to the Ilkhanid heritage, but Jackson sees this as secondary, beginning after the conquest of the Ilkhanid necropolis of Sultaniyya. The following chapter is devoted to the question of Timur’s Muslim faith and his use of Islamic rhetoric. Although Jackson notes that the accusations of false belief come from inimical, largely Mamluk, sources, as do rumours of Timur’s Shiʿi faith, he concludes that Timur, though a sincere Muslim, nevertheless kept elements of Turco-Mongolian belief: ‘For Timur, God was at least as much the Inner Asian Tenggeri as the God of Islam’ (p. 367). The next question that Jackson addresses is whether Timur was attempting to resurrect the Mongol empire. He comes down against that theory, pointing out that important parts of the Mongol empire were left out, including Mongolia itself. On the other hand, Timur to some extent did try to resurrect the Mongol world order, continuing to promote Mongol institutions, including the khanship, the decimal army, and the Mongol concept of law and custom (yasa and töre). Following this he provides a brief overview of Timur’s successors, in largely narrative format.

Jackson’s conclusions are laid out in the final chapter of the book. He suggests that, rather than attempting to restore the Mongol empire, Timur was reviving the expansionist policy of some earlier Chaghadayids and points out that during the Mongol period, there were several Chaghadayid incursions into India. He sees Timur’s success as due in part to the disorder and destructive politics of the period in which he rose to power, which both provided invitations to take over new places, and allowed him to take credit for improved conditions after his conquest. On the other hand, Jackson believes that the granting of important governorships to Timur’s descendants created regional loyalties and helped precipitate the breakdown of his empire, as did his lateness in appointing a successor during his last years.

Throughout this book Jackson reviews controversies in the field, major and minor, providing judicious and carefully researched judgements on each. His attention to detail and his careful consideration of innumerable dynasties, institutions, and issues make this work difficult reading for anyone not previously acquainted with the history of the Mongols and their successors. For advanced students and scholars, it provides a comprehensive overview of a pivotal period in Islamic history, and its meticulous and wide-ranging scholarship makes it an invaluable resource for all those in the field.