Toward an Understanding of Racial and Ethnic Diversity in Body Image among Women

Abstract

Body appreciation is associated with health outcomes and affects individuals across their life span, making this area of inquiry particularly relevant to social workers. Race and ethnicity have not been explored thoroughly as demographic characteristics that influence body appreciation. This study aimed to fill this gap by answering the following research questions: (a) How do favorite and least favorite body parts vary by race and ethnicity and (b) how do body appreciation, skin tone satisfaction, body size, and weight perception vary by race and ethnicity? Using Reddit, we recruited 18- through 56-year-old (N = 497) women who identified as African American, white, Asian, Hispanic/Latina, or more than one of these (multiracial). Results suggest that abs and stomach were the least favorite body parts/features across races and ethnicities, with differences in favorite body parts/features among women of color and white women. In addition, African American women reported highest body appreciation whereas white women reported the lowest. Latina women reported highest skin tone satisfaction, with multiracial women reporting the lowest. This study suggests that women of color’s body appreciation goes beyond the traditional comparison with the white ideal and further body image research should look outside this myopic duality.

Body image significantly relates to physical (Ramseyer Winter, O’Neill, & Omary, 2017), mental (Gillen, 2015), and sexual health outcomes (Ramseyer Winter, 2017) and affects women across the life span (Runfola et al., 2013). In addition, the majority of women in western society are dissatisfied with their body (Runfola et al., 2013). As such, it is likely that many social work clients are affected by body image concerns. However, a lack of inquiry regarding what influences body image, particularly positive body image, among women of color prevents researchers and social work practitioners from fully understanding these constructs and how they influence mental and physical health.

Literature Review

Body Image and Race and Ethnicity

White women have lower levels of body satisfaction, are more concerned about weight, have an increased drive to conceal body size with clothing, and experience increased levels of disordered eating and weight-related depression and anxiety when compared with women from other ethnic or racial groups (Rucker & Cash, 1992; Wildes, Emery, & Simons, 2001; Yates, Edman, & Aruguete, 2004). Reasons for this include an increasingly thin societal beauty ideal (Tiggemann, 2011) and a greater internalization of media influence to meet Eurocentric standards of beauty (Rucker & Cash, 1992). However, much of the research only compares body image levels of white, Hispanic/Latina, and black women (Cotter, Kelly, Mitchell, & Mazzeo, 2015; Molloy & Herzberger, 1998). What is less clear are the differences in body image across multiple racial and ethnic groups, including white, African American, Asian American, white or nonwhite Hispanic/Latina, and multiracial groups (Grabe & Hyde, 2006).

Due to greater acceptance of larger, more curvaceous body shapes (Cotter et al., 2015) and broader and more flexible beauty ideals (Wood-Barcalow, Tylka, & Augustus-Horvath, 2010), African American women have low levels of weight preoccupation and disordered eating habits (Kronenfeld, Reba-Harrelson, Von Holle, Reyes, & Bulik, 2010) and greater satisfaction with their bodies when compared with women in other ethnic and racial groups (Sanderson, Lupinski, & Moch, 2013). It is possible that these differences in body image across race and ethnicity stem from cultural values regarding standards of beauty (Grabe & Hyde, 2006; Kawamura, 2011). Rather than place value on these types of beauty standards, African American women report that they embrace their bodies and appreciate race- or ethnic-specific features (for example, lip size, hair grade, nose shape, body shape, and skin color) (Bond & Cash, 1992; Mucherah & Frazier, 2013) and unique qualities such as smile, style, attitude, and ability to project pride and confidence (Parker et al., 1995).

Although it appears that African American women have higher levels of body satisfaction than white women, it is not safe to assume that they are free of dissatisfaction. Altabe (1998) found that African American participants reported that they would feel better about their bodies if they had longer hair and were thinner and more toned. Other studies have demonstrated that African American college students internalize the thin ideal as much as white students (Roberts, Cash, Feingold, & Johnson, 2006), especially if they attend predominately white institutions (Hesse-Biber, 1996). Although it has been established that strong identification with African American culture serves as a protective factor against eating disorders, a drive for thinness, and body devaluation (Brook & Pahl, 2005; Sanderson et al., 2013), literature in body image research is unclear as to how weight perception affects body image in African American culture. Some studies conclude that African American women are more satisfied with their weight, less likely to see themselves as overweight, and have more accurate perceptions of their weight than women in other racial or ethnic categories (see, for example, Abrams, Allen, & Gray, 1993). Others demonstrate that African American and white women prefer a similar ideal silhouette size and shape (Powell & Kahn, 1995) and that weight is directly correlated with body satisfaction for African American women but not for white women (Abrams et al., 1993). Because of these inconsistencies, it is imperative that researchers begin to inquire about weight perception and consider how sociocultural factors play a role in levels of body satisfaction and appreciation among African American women.

Although research surrounding white and African American women’s body image is heavily explored, few body image studies have uncovered specific factors that influence Asian American women’s body image (Hall, 1995; Iyer & Haslam, 2003; Lau, Lum, Chronister, & Forrest, 2006). Research demonstrates that this group of women report similar levels of body dissatisfaction as white women (Grabe & Hyde, 2006) due to discontentment with weight and body shape (Altabe, 1998; Iyer & Haslam, 2003) and unhappiness with racially distinctive features (for example, eye shape, eyelid size, face shape, and nose shape) (Evans & McConnell, 2003; Mintz & Kashubeck, 1999). In addition, many Asian American women report a desire for lighter skin (Altabe, 1998).

It is not clear how body size affects Asian American women’s body image. Research demonstrates that the petite frame and low body mass index (BMI) of Asian American women serve as protective factors against body dissatisfaction and disordered eating patterns commonly found in white women (Akan & Grilo, 1995). However, Asian American women experience similar levels of dissatisfaction to those of white women regarding body size (Yates et al., 2004) and are more afraid to gain weight than white women (Sanders & Heiss, 1998). Other studies report that Asian American women’s levels of body satisfaction is lower than white women’s and that they have higher concerns regarding overall body shape than other racial or ethnic groups (Grabe & Hyde, 2006; Haudek, Rorty, & Henker, 1999). In fact, according to multiple studies, Asian American youths and young adults (ages 18 to 22) are least satisfied with their appearance when compared with individuals in other racial and ethnic categories (Grabe & Hyde, 2006; Lee & Zahn, 1998).

In addition, cultural influences play a large role in determining body satisfaction levels among Asian American women. Because Asian American women are more likely to internalize a western or Eurocentric beauty standard than African American or Hispanic/Latina women (Evans & McConnell, 2003), they may have more body dissatisfaction due to racially distinctive features. In addition, Asian American women may also internalize the notion of marriage as a way to measure social success (Kawamura, 2011), meaning that there may be added pressure to subscribe to traditional gender roles and adopt a hyperfeminine physical appearance, both of which can contribute to body dissatisfaction among women (Murnen & Don, 2012). Because collectivism is so important in Asian cultures, Asian American women may also want to assimilate to western beauty standards quickly to blend in, “enhance” their features, and avoid deviation from the “norm” (Kawamura, 2011). This may be one reason why the most requested plastic surgery procedures among Asian American women include rhinoplasties (or nose reshaping) and eyelid surgery (Man, 2006) and why Asian American women have high levels of body dissatisfaction.

Findings from studies that explore body image of Hispanic/Latina women (that is, women of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin) are also conflicting. Whereas some research shows that this population reports greater overall body satisfaction than non-Hispanic/Latina white women (Barry & Grilo, 2002), others report that body satisfaction and appreciation levels between these two groups are comparable (Demarest & Allen, 2000; Kronenfeld et al., 2010; Schooler & Lowry, 2011) and that Hispanic/Latina women desire to be taller, thinner, and have longer hair (Altabe, 1998). In fact, according to a 2006 meta-analysis, there are no significant differences in body image or satisfaction between Hispanic/Latina and non-Hispanic/Latina white women (Grabe & Hyde, 2006).

Hispanic/Latina women’s body image is affected by their respective cultures. For example, although many Hispanic/Latina individuals value curvy bodies, large breasts, rounded derrieres, and a generally “thick” body shape (Goodman, 2002; Schooler & Lowry, 2011), there is more body policing and weight management practices (for example, food restriction) in Hispanic/Latina families when compared with those among other races or ethnicities (Schooler & Lowry, 2011). Not only does this increase the likelihood of eating pathology for Hispanic/Latina women (Kronenfeld et al., 2010; Wildes et al., 2001), it also increases the likelihood of depression (Schooler & Lowry, 2011). One reason for this body policing and general body dissatisfaction among Hispanic/Latina women is due to possessing “dual identities”—acculturative stress (Schooler & Lowry, 2011) caused by conflicting messages in the media about what the ideal body looks like in the United States (Goodman, 2002). Moreover, Hispanic/Latino individuals are the ethnic group most likely to own a smartphone, are twice as likely as white individuals to stream videos online, and are more likely to download pictures and music on their mobile devices (Pardo & Dreas, 2014), all of which increase exposure to media images that do not necessarily represent their body type or features (Schooler & Lowry, 2011). These factors contribute to why some scholars report that increased levels of acculturation into Anglo culture in the United States directly reduces body satisfaction and appreciation for racially marginalized women (Schooler, 2008; Schooler & Lowry, 2011).

Multiracial women are the most understudied population in body image research (McKinley, 1999; Pikler & Winterowd, 2003; Smolak & Cash, 2011). Although Ricciardelli, McCabe, Williams, and Thompson (2007) found that multiracial men engage in similar rates of disordered eating as white and African American men, their research did not include women and did not measure body image. An additional study (Ivezaj et al., 2010) found that multiracial women reported greater body dissatisfaction than African American women and higher levels of weight preoccupation and body-related anxiety than white or African American women. However, authors did not discuss why membership to multiple racial groups affects body image and no Hispanic/Latina or Asian American women were included in the study. Although there is a dearth of knowledge about multiracial women and body image, scholars hypothesize that this population is more likely than other racial groups to be dissatisfied with their bodies due to the “emotional and identity problems associated with straddling two cultures” (Ricciardelli et al., 2007, p. 601). For example, according to literature, it is more culturally acceptable for both African American and Latina/Hispanic women to have curvy or thick body shapes (Schooler & Lowry, 2011; Greenberg & LaPorte, 1996), which is not true for white women who value Eurocentric beauty standards (for example, extremely slender body shape) (Overstreet, Quinn, & Agocha, 2010; Patton, 2006). For multiracial women, attempting to vacillate between two different standards of beauty is both complicated and impossible, as one cannot be both waifish and thick, be both porcelain-skinned and tan, and so on. Attempting to understand how these dual identities affect mental health is necessary, as attempting to fit one specific type of body standard (let alone two diverse body standards) can cause anxiety, depression, and disordered eating (Furnham, Badmin, & Sneade, 2002; Grabe & Hyde, 2006; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987; Siegel, Yancey, Aneshensel, & Schuler, 1999). In addition, the role that age plays in body image perception across race and ethnicity remains underexplored. According to Grabe and Hyde (2006), the largest variance between white and African American women’s body dissatisfaction occurs during late adolescence and continues into young adulthood with amount of variance tapering off into later adulthood. According to another study, white women’s body dissatisfaction increases with age and tapers off into late adulthood, Asian women’s body dissatisfaction peaks in adulthood, and Hispanic/Latina women’s body dissatisfaction occurs in young adulthood (Cachelin, Veisel, Barzegarnazari, & Striegel-Moore, 2000). Many studies exploring body satisfaction of women rely on college-age young adults as their sample, as transition into young adulthood is a time of significant identity development and considered a relevant time to assess identification with certain beauty ideals (Cotter et al., 2015). But because body image is known to change across the life span (Cotter et al., 2015), comprehensive research surrounding age trends among women from diverse racial backgrounds is needed.

Current Study

The current study aims to better understand body image among women who identify as African American, white, Asian American, Latina, and multiracial by seeking to answer two research questions: (1) How do favorite and least favorite body parts vary by race and ethnicity and (2) how do body appreciation, skin tone satisfaction, body size, and weight perception vary by race and ethnicity? Inclusion of a weight perception measure rather than simply asking participants for their height and weight to calculate BMI was essential, as research is unclear about how weight perception specifically affects body image across race or ethnicity. Although body size and weight perception differ across race and ethnicity, women in western society are subject to images of women as not only thin, but also athletic and toned, with small waists, large buttocks, and large breasts, a body type that is largely unattainable (Mischke, 2014). Because of this ideal, all girls and women typically have weight concerns that ultimately shape body image, satisfaction, and appreciation (Stice, Killen, Hayward, & Taylor, 1998).

We predicted that participants would rate various body parts differently based on their race or ethnicity. Specifically, we made four predictions: (1) Racially marginalized women would rate specific body parts (hair, eyes, smile, and so on) higher than white women due to their tendency to place value on non–body size or weight characteristics (Cash & Smolak, 2011). (2) White women would have the lowest levels of body appreciation and would report being least satisfied with their body size. (3) Black women would have the highest level of body appreciation and would report to be more satisfied with their body size when compared with reports of participants in other racial or ethnic categories. (4) Hispanic/Latina women would be more satisfied with their skin tone than women in other racial or ethnic categories. (5) There would be no differences in weight perception across racial and ethnic groups, and participants would rate their hips, abdomen, or thighs as their least favorite body part due to a thin but toned ideal constantly presented in western media (Markula, 1995).

Method

Participants

The final sample included 497 women ages 18 through 56 (M = 26.24; SD = 6.15) with over half between 18 and 25 years old (n = 301; 61.1%), 32.0% between 26 and 35 years old (n = 158), and 6.9% (n = 34) over 35. With regard to racial and ethnic diversity, 27.6% (n = 137) self-identified as non-Hispanic white, 22.9% (n = 114) as non-Hispanic Asian American, 19.1% (n = 95) as non-Hispanic black, 17.3% (n = 86) as multiracial, and 13.1% (n = 65) as Latina. The mean BMI was in the “overweight” range (M = 25.90; SD = 7.12), but the sample ranged from “underweight” to “obese” (range = 17–64; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], n.d.). Over half of the sample were either partnered or married (n = 274; 55.2%); 40.5% were single (n = 201); and 4.2% identified as either widowed, divorced, separated, or other (n = 21). In addition, over half the sample had a bachelor’s degree or higher (n = 272, 54.6%); 26.7% reported having some college education (n = 133); and 18.6% reported having less than a high school diploma, having a high school diploma or the equivalent, having an associate degree, or other (n = 93). Refer to Table 1 for additional participant characteristics and study indicator descriptives.

Procedure

Data were collected online during the summer of 2016. Participants were required to meet the following criteria: (a) 18 years old or older; (b) identify as a woman; and (c) identify as one or more of the following: white, African American, Hispanic/Latina, or Asian American. Recruitment began after obtaining institutional review board approval from the first author’s institution. Participants clicked on the link to the study and were taken to three questions to determine their eligibility. Participants who were eligible were then shown the consent form, after which they chose whether to participate. At the end of the survey, participants were directed to another survey where they provided their e-mail address if they chose to be entered into the drawing for one of 15 $50 gift cards. Names and addresses were only collected from winners of the gift cards.

We recruited participants through Reddit (http://reddit.com), an online bulletin board that offers thousands of subreddits, which are online bulletin boards by topic area. To recruit a diverse sample, we posted the survey link to subreddits that specifically related to women of color. For example, we posted to /r/blackladies and /r/asianamerican subreddits. We recruited white women by posting on subreddits specifically related to women. Other than targeting race- and ethnicity-specific subreddits, we did not conduct oversampling or targeted recruiting. Data were collected online using Qualtrics.

Measures

Body Appreciation

Body appreciation was measured with the Body Appreciation Scale–2 (Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015), a 10-item measure with responses ranging from 1 = never to 5 = always. Sample items include “I respect my body” and “My behavior reveals my positive attitude toward my body; for example, I walk while holding my head high and smiling.” Reliability was estimated to be high with the current sample (α = .92). When split by race and ethnicity, reliability analyses revealed high reliability for each of the race groups in the current study: white (α = .92), black (α = .93), Latina (α = .91), Asian (α = .93), and multiracial (α = .91).

Skin Tone Satisfaction

Skin tone satisfaction was measured with one item (Landor et al., 2013), “I like my skin color,” with response options ranging from 1 = strongly agree to 5 = strongly disagree. We reverse coded this item so that a higher score indicates a higher level of satisfaction.

Weight Perception

Weight perception was measured with one item, “How do you think of yourself in terms of weight,” with the following response options: very underweight, slightly underweight, about the right weight, slightly overweight, very overweight.

Favorite and Least Favorite Body Parts and Features

To gain a better understanding of culturally sensitive body image, we asked participants, “What are your top five favorite things about your body/appearance (these are the parts you love!)” and “What are your five least favorite things about your body/appearance (these are the parts you really do not like/want to change!).” Participants were instructed to choose up to five for each question, with the order they chose them in being inconsequential.

Response options included hair (overall, not one specific thing about your hair); hair color; hairstyle; hair texture; eyes overall (not one specific thing about your eyes); eye color; eye shape; eye lid; face; smile; lip thickness; dimples; nose overall (not one specific thing about your nose); nose width; neck; skin tone; freckles; muscles; height; overall body size (not one specific part of your body); overall body shape (not one specific part of your body); arms (overall, not one specific part of your arms); hands (overall, not one specific part of your hands); fingers; fingernails; shoulders; breasts; chest; waist; stomach/abs; back; hips; butt (overall); butt size; butt shape; vulva (the outside of female genitals); legs (overall, not one specific part of your legs); thighs; calves; ankles; feet (overall, not one specific part of your feet); size of feet; toes; toenails; tattoos and/or piercings; I do not like any parts of my body (for the former question only); and I do not dislike anything about my body (for the latter question only).

Race and Ethnicity

Race and ethnicity was collected with one item: “How do you identify your race/ethnicity (select all that apply).” Response options included white/Caucasian; black (African American, Caribbean American, Creole, Haitian, Jamaican, West Indian, Brazilian, Ethiopian, Somali, Kenyan, and other [please specify]); Hispanic/Latina (Mexican descent, Caribbean descent, Central American descent, South American descent, and other [please specify]); and Asian (East Asian descent [Chinese, Japanese, Korean], Southeast Asian descent [Filipino, Vietnamese, Cambodian, Hmong], South Asian descent [Asian Indian, Pakistani, Nepalese], and other [please specify]). Participants who responded with more than one race or ethnicity were categorized at multiracial.

Body Size

BMI was computed from self-reported height and weight data using the CDC equation: weight (lb)/(height [in])² × 703 (CDC, n.d.). BMI was collapsed into weight categories based on CDC BMI categories: under 18.5 = underweight; 18.5–24.99 = healthy, normal weight; 25.0–29.99 = overweight; and 30 and over = obese (CDC, n.d.).

Results

Analytic Plan

To assess differences in favorite and least favorite body parts and features by race and ethnicity, we ran bivariate frequencies. We ran a series of analyses of variance, analyses of covariance (ANCOVA), and chi-square analyses to determine whether our sample differed by race and ethnicity for the following variables: body size, body appreciation, skin tone satisfaction, and weight perception. Data were not weighted.

Favorite and Least Favorite Body Parts and Features

There were many similarities and some differences by race and ethnicity. The favorite body part was eye color for white women (40.9%, n = 56), lip thickness for black (38.9%, n = 37) and multiracial (34.9%, n = 30) women, and hair overall for Latina (44.6%, n = 29) and Asian American women (40.4%; n = 46). Stomach and abs were the most reported least favorite body part or feature among all racial and ethnic groups (white 52.6%, n = 72; black 50.5%, n = 48; Latina 41.5%, n = 27; Asian 53.5%, n = 61; multiracial 57.0%, n = 49). Refer to Table 2 for a complete list of the top five favorite and top five least favorite body part by race and ethnicity.

Body Size

The overall mean BMI for the sample was 25.90 (SD = 7.12). Women who identified as black had the highest average BMI (M = 27.80, SD = 8.41) and Asian women had the lowest reported BMI (M = 23.65, SD = 5.51). The difference in mean BMI by race and ethnicity was statistically significant [F(4, 470) = 4.81, p = .001]. Due to the significant differences in BMI, we controlled for BMI when exploring mean differences in body appreciation by race and ethnicity.

Body Appreciation

Black women reported the highest body appreciation (M = 3.37, SD = 0.82), with white women reporting the lowest (M = 3.13, SD = 0.74). However, body appreciation did not differ significantly by race and ethnicity [F(4, 488) = 1.31, p = .267]. We ran ANCOVA with BMI as a covariate. While holding BMI constant, body appreciation did not vary significantly by race and ethnicity [F(4, 471) = 0.78, p = .547].

Skin Tone Satisfaction

Latina women reported the highest skin tone satisfaction (M = 4.14, SD = 0.82), followed by black women (M = 4.08, SD = 0.91), Asian women (M = 3.93, SD = 0.90), white women (M = 3.83, SD = 0.87), and women who identified as multiracial (M = 3.78, SD = 0.95). The differences in mean skin tone satisfaction by race and ethnicity were significant [F(4, 496) = 2.58, p = .037].

Weight Perception

The majority of participants reported being slightly overweight or very overweight: non-Hispanic white (64.7%, n = 88), non-Hispanic black (68.1%, n = 64), Latina (68.8%, n = 44), non-Hispanic Asian American (57.6%, n = 64), and multiracial (62.4%, n = 53). However, a chi-square test revealed that the differences in weight perception by race and ethnicity were not significant: χ²(16, N = 490) = 21.44, p = .162.

Discussion

The current study contributes to a growing body of research that calls for a broader measure of body image to fully understand the complexity of body image for all women, including women of color. Counter to some previous literature (see Roberts et al., 2006, for a meta-analytic review), our findings suggest that women of color are not immune from negative appraisals about their physical appearance. Results of the present study illustrate that all women have concerns about their body size and shape, but women of color, in particular, seem to also place high value on non–body size and shape physical characteristics such as facial features and hair. Thus, a myopic focus on body size and shape in the research literature neglects other physical characteristics that influence body image. Without both considerations, we may never achieve a holistic understanding of the embodied experiences of all women.

The present study attempted to examine how women across different racial and ethnic groups rate various physical characteristics, including various body parts and features. Results indicate that eye color was the favorite physical characteristic for white women, whereas lip thickness was the favorite for black and multiracial women. Hair overall was the favorite physical characteristic for Latina and Asian women. Lip thickness was the second favorite physical characteristic for Latina women, whereas eyes overall was the second favorite physical characteristic for multiracial women. Last, height was the second favorite physical characteristic for white and black women. Taken together, findings suggest that women in general place a high value on non–body size and shape features. In particular, women of color place high value on physical characteristics such as facial features (for example, lips, eye color) and hair. This indicates that these physical characteristics may be equally salient to women of color as body shape and size. Facial features and hair are rarely included in positive body image scales despite a strong appreciation for these features among women of color. Although the significance of facial features and hair has been discussed in previous work (Byrd & Solomon, 2005), body image research still fails to include these variables in assessments of body image. Such features may serve as buffers against body dissatisfaction for women of color, which may in turn protect women from eating disorders and other negative psychological health outcomes.

Conversely, women across all racial and ethnic groups reported that their least favorite physical characteristic was their stomach and abs. Overall body size was the second least favorite physical characteristic for all women, except for black women, who rated overall body size as their third least favorite physical characteristic. These finding are consistent with decades of past literature that document women’s dissatisfaction with their body size and shape (Fiske, Fallon, Blissmer, & Redding, 2014; Grabe & Hyde, 2006). In addition, black women reported their breast size to be the second least favorite physical characteristic. Nose overall was the third least favorite for Latina, Asian, and multiracial women. Studies examining body dissatisfaction among racially diverse samples found that Latina and Asian women were more dissatisfied with some of their facial features, including their nose and eyes (Frederick, Kelly, Latner, Sandhu, & Tsong, 2016; Warren, 2014). It is interesting that the physical characteristics identified as the least favorite for women across all racial and ethnic groups centered around body size and shape. These findings suggest that past research has only focused on women’s appreciation of features they seem to like the least. The danger in this approach is that it leaves out more salient culturally relevant features that are seen as attributes for women of color.

Findings demonstrate that standards of beauty are general to all women but also unique to women of color as results show that traditional body image concerns (for example, body size and shape) are not exclusive features on which women of color evaluate themselves and are evaluated by others. Thus, culturally relevant physical characteristics such as facial features and hair must be included in discussion of body image as they are meaningful aspects of the embodied experience of women of color. Women of color may be buffered from body image pathology when culturally relevant features are included in positive body image discussions to provide a more positive body image overall, though this is speculative given the study design and measure used.

Results from this investigation also revealed significant differences in BMI among racial and ethnic groups. Specifically, black women reported the highest mean BMI while also reporting the highest body appreciation evaluation, although there were no significant differences in body appreciation between groups. These results are consistent with literature that points to cultural beliefs including a general preference for larger body sizes and resistance to traditional standards of body shape (Lovejoy, 2001; Webb, Warren-Findlow, Chou, & Adams, 2013) as an explanation for these findings. Conversely, Asian women reported the lowest mean BMI. Some literature has suggested that a cultural emphasis on thinness and criticism of body size from family may explain low BMI (Smart & Tsong, 2014). Consistent with past research, we found that white women reported the lowest body appreciation (Grabe & Hyde, 2006). In addition, results revealed significant differences in skin tone satisfaction such that Latina women had the highest satisfaction while multiracial women had the lowest. It is important to note, however, that African American women scored the second highest. These findings are similar to those of studies that found associations between skin tone, skin tone satisfaction, and women of color (Landor & Halpern, 2016; Romo, 2011) and suggests that skin tone remains a salient aspect of body image in the lives of both Latina and African American women. Last, we explored racial and ethnic differences in weight perceptions. Results showed that the majority of women from all racial and ethnic groups perceived themselves as being overweight (either slightly or very). Similar results were noted in other studies (Paeratakul, White, Williamson, Ryan, & Bray, 2002).

In sum, our study demonstrates that body image measures that centralize the thin ideal provide an incomplete picture of the embodied experiences of women of color. Even when white samples are not included in studies, women of color are implicitly compared with their white counterparts as the measures reflect white standards of beauty. Studies continue to examine body image issues among women of color using measures that have been developed and validated with predominately white samples. Such measures may be no longer sufficient. Our findings indicate that women of color struggle to navigate issues around white standards of beauty and their own cultural attitudes around other physical characteristics salient to their body image. This conflict is important to note.

Findings also underscore social work’s ethical foundation. The social work code of ethics states that “social justice” and “competency” be incorporated by social workers at all times (National Association of Social Workers, 2017). Studies that increase understanding of how body image affects historically underresearched races and ethnicities is imperative to moving body image research forward in a way that is culturally competent. A recent study found that clinical practitioners do not feel equipped to assess for body image in female clients. This study also found that practitioner would like further training and information on how body image affects mental health (Ramseyer Winter, Brett, Pevehouse, O’Neill, & Ellis-Ordway, 2018). Lack of diverse body image research makes creating training and providing tools to practitioners nearly impossible, perpetuating the continued gap in knowledge surrounding body image’s effect on clients across cultures, which according to the social work guidelines is unethical.

This research also highlights the need to continue to explore the various body image concerns for all racial and ethnic groups rather than painting with a broad brush. The experiences and perceptions of women from different racial and ethnic groups are different and should be treated as such.

Limitations

The current study has many strengths, but also several important limitations. First, the cross-sectional design does not allow us to determine causality and the findings are not generalizable. All measures are self-reported, which could result in biased data. Furthermore, the measure of favorite and least favorite body features is crude and will require refinement and psychometric testing if it is used in future research. Although this article explores body image by race and ethnicity in much more depth than most, it is important to note that we were unable to account for diversity within heterogeneous racial and ethnic groups. In addition, the use of Reddit to collect data as the sole source of data collection is a limitation.

Conclusion

Based on the notion that women of color are buffered from body image concerns, social work practitioners may choose not to discuss body image issues with these women. Our results suggest that practitioners should avoid such assumptions and consider expanding the scope of the discussion to other relevant physical characteristics such as facial features and hair. In addition, findings further demonstrate the need for researchers and practitioners to include aspects of physical appearance aside from body size and shape in measurement of body image of women of color. In fact, it seems critical for future body image studies to include variables related to physical characteristics (for example, hair, lips, eye color) to more comprehensively understand the lived reality of all women. Understanding what characteristics promote body satisfaction and a positive body image differentially across various racial and ethnic groups could be a salient tool in the development of tailored interventions designed to prevent eating and psychological disorders. Future research should consider the interactions of other social identities such as social class, age, racial or ethnic identity, and sexual orientation as they may also be associated with the body image of women of color. In addition, given the dearth of research on body image issues within racial and ethnic minorities, qualitative studies using in-depth interviews should be conducted to investigate the influence of culturally relevant physical characteristics on how racial and ethnic minority women view their bodies.

Virginia Ramseyer Winter, PhD, is assistant professor, School of Social Work, University of Missouri, 705 Clark Hall, Columbia, MO 65211; e-mail: [email protected]. Laura King Danforth, PhD, is assistant professor, University of Arkansas at Little Rock. Antoinette Landor, PhD, is assistant professor, Department of Human Development and Family Science, University of Missouri, Columbia. Danielle Pevehouse-Pfeiffer, MSW, is case manager, Care Coordination, University of Missouri Hospital, Columbia.

References