
Contents
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13 Other Issues in Statistics I: Missing Data, Intention-to-Treat Analysis, and Covariate Adjustment
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Introduction Introduction
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Classic Measures in Epidemiology Classic Measures in Epidemiology
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Ratio Ratio
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Proportion Proportion
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Rate Rate
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Classic Designs of Observational Studies Classic Designs of Observational Studies
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Case Report and Case Series Case Report and Case Series
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Statistical Analysis Statistical Analysis
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Advantages Advantages
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Disadvantages Disadvantages
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Cross-Sectional Studies Cross-Sectional Studies
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Statistical Analysis Statistical Analysis
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Advantages Advantages
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Disadvantages Disadvantages
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Case-Control Studies Case-Control Studies
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Statistical Analysis Statistical Analysis
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Advantages Advantages
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Disadvantages Disadvantages
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Cohort Studies Cohort Studies
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Statistical Analysis Statistical Analysis
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Advantages Advantages
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Disadvantages Disadvantages
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Bias and Confounding Bias and Confounding
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Bias Bias
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Selection Bias Selection Bias
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Information Bias Information Bias
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Assessment and Control of Bias Assessment and Control of Bias
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Confounding Confounding
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Control of Confounding Control of Confounding
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Restriction Restriction
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Matching Matching
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Stratification Stratification
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Statistical Modeling Statistical Modeling
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Sample Size Determination in Observational Studies Sample Size Determination in Observational Studies
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Special Considerations for Sample Size Determination in Different Study Designs Special Considerations for Sample Size Determination in Different Study Designs
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Observational Studies in Surgery Observational Studies in Surgery
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Where Does Surgical Research Begin? Where Does Surgical Research Begin?
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Interpreting Data from Surgical Studies Interpreting Data from Surgical Studies
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When Does a New Surgical Procedure Become Accepted? When Does a New Surgical Procedure Become Accepted?
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Case Study: Observational Study—Pursuing a Better Understanding of Psychotic Disorders Case Study: Observational Study—Pursuing a Better Understanding of Psychotic Disorders
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Stockholm—Sao Paulo Stockholm—Sao Paulo
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Observational Studies Observational Studies
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Cohort Studies Cohort Studies
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Cross-sectional versus Case-Control Studies Cross-sectional versus Case-Control Studies
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Case Discussion Case Discussion
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Case Questions for Reflection Case Questions for Reflection
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Further Reading Further Reading
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References References
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Cite
Abstract
This chapter on observational studies provides an understanding of the main concepts in epidemiology, introduces common study designs, such as cross-sectional, case-control, and cohort studies, and outlines their importance for clinical research. The hallmark of epidemiological research is that it observes unexposed and exposed individuals under “real-life conditions” without intervening itself. The chapter emphasizes the important role of bias and confounding in interpreting results from such studies and explains how bias and confounding can be controlled. It furthermore discusses specific aspects of sample size determination that are relevant to observational studies. The chapter concludes with a brief review of the special nature of surgical research.
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