https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7430-1186
This trial was conducted at the University of Wisconsin’s Hancock Agricultural Research Station (GPS: 44.11382°N, –89.53551°W) on a Plainfield sand soil in 2024. Potato, Solanum tuberosum cv. “Snowden” B-size tubers were machine planted on April 19 with an approximate seed spacing of 12 in. and a row spacing of 3 ft. Fertilizer granules (550 lbs/ac, 6-30-22 4S+ micronutrients) containing no insecticide were introduced at the time of planting per standard commercial practices. The field was later divided into 4-row by 20 ft.-long plots by tilling 8 ft. alleys across rows with adjacent plots separated by 2 unplanted rows. Plots were arranged in a randomized complete block design with four replicates. Plots were maintained according to standard commercial practices including fertilizer, fungicide, and herbicide applications.
All treatments except the untreated control included Calantha (ledprona) applied weekly at the standard rate of 16 fl. oz/ac, though treatments differed in the timing of the initial application. Trt 2 was initiated at adult colonization, Trt 3 at 10% egg hatch, Trt 4 at 50% egg hatch (typical initial application timing for foliar programs), and Trt 5 1 week after Trt 4 (approximately 90% egg hatch and well into larval development). All treatments were applied weekly once initiated with the final application on June 25. All treatments were applied using a CO2-pressurized backpack sprayer fitted with a 6 ft. boom, operating at 30 psi and delivering approximately 20 gal/ac through 4 flat-fan nozzles (Tee Jet 8001VS) while traveling at 3 mph.
Colorado Potato Beetle (CPB), Leptinotarsa decemlineata, populations were assessed on 10 randomly selected plants in the center of each plot for the following life stages: adults, egg masses, small larvae (first to second instars), and large larvae (third to fourth instars). CPB counts and whole-plot defoliation estimates were performed on June 4, 11, 17, 24, and July 1, 9, and 16 (6, 13, 19, 26, 33, 41, and 48 days after initial foliar application, coinciding with initial adult colonization). Second-generation adults had colonized all plots by July 9 so counts from July 16 are omitted in this report. Evaluation data were analyzed in R version 4.4.1 (R-Core Team 2024). Insect counts were log(x + 1) transformed and defoliation percentages were arcsine square root transformed prior to statistical analysis. Treatment main effects were determined using analysis of variance. Means separation letter codes were generated using Tukey’s HSD procedure (α = 0.05, R package “agricolae”).
There were no significant differences in adult counts on any evaluation date (Table 1), with first-generation adults present generally on June 4 and June 11, and second-generation adults colonizing plots starting on July 9. Egg mass counts were highest on June 4 and 11, with no significant differences between treatments (data not shown). Small larvae were most numerous on June 11 and June 17, declining on June 24 through July 1, with significant differences present only on July 9 well after peak populations (Table 2). Large larvae peaked on June 17 and June 24, declining on July 1 through July 9, with significantly fewer in Trt 2, 3, and 4, which had each received 3, 2, and 1 application, respectively, by June 17 (Table 3). By July 1, only counts in the untreated plots remained elevated and all treatments had significantly fewer large larvae than control. Defoliation patterns mirrored large larvae counts (Table 4, Fig. 1), with significantly higher defoliation in Trt 1 and 5 on June 17 (neither having received any applications by this date). Defoliation in treatments 2, 3, and 4, initiated at colonization, 10% egg hatch, and 50% egg hatch, were similar through the end of the experiment suggesting an initial application timing at 50% egg hatch works well for controlling first-generation Colorado potato beetle when three total weekly applications are performed. Initiating foliar applications prior to 50% egg hatch did not result in significantly better beetle control or lower defoliation through the first generation. Conversely, Trt 5, initiated 1 week after 50% egg hatch, resulted in defoliation reaching upwards of 15%, which recovered somewhat after applications were initiated but remained significantly higher than treatments initiated at 50% egg hatch or earlier.
Colorado potato beetle adults per 10 plants
| Trt | Application | June 4 | June 11 | June 17 | June 24 | July 1 | July 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Schedule | 6 DAA | 13 DAA | 19 DAA | 26 DAA | 33 DAA | 41 DAA |
| 1 | Untreated | 5.25 a | 4.00 a | 0.00 a | 0.00 a | 2.00 a | 91.75 a |
| 2 | 5 × 7-day at colonization (May 29) | 4.75 a | 4.00 a | 0.25 a | 1.25 a | 1.75 a | 75.50 a |
| 3 | 4 × 7-day at 10% hatch (June 4) | 5.25 a | 1.75 a | 0.50 a | 0.25 a | 1.00 a | 78.75 a |
| 4 | 3 × 7-day at 50% hatch (June 11) | 5.25 a | 4.00 a | 0.75 a | 1.00 a | 0.50 a | 56.25 a |
| 5 | 2 × 7-day at 90% hatch (June 18) | 5.25 a | 4.00 a | 0.00 a | 0.25 a | 1.00 a | 94.25 a |
| P > Fa | 0.89 | 0.2 | 0.31 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.65 |
| Trt | Application | June 4 | June 11 | June 17 | June 24 | July 1 | July 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Schedule | 6 DAA | 13 DAA | 19 DAA | 26 DAA | 33 DAA | 41 DAA |
| 1 | Untreated | 5.25 a | 4.00 a | 0.00 a | 0.00 a | 2.00 a | 91.75 a |
| 2 | 5 × 7-day at colonization (May 29) | 4.75 a | 4.00 a | 0.25 a | 1.25 a | 1.75 a | 75.50 a |
| 3 | 4 × 7-day at 10% hatch (June 4) | 5.25 a | 1.75 a | 0.50 a | 0.25 a | 1.00 a | 78.75 a |
| 4 | 3 × 7-day at 50% hatch (June 11) | 5.25 a | 4.00 a | 0.75 a | 1.00 a | 0.50 a | 56.25 a |
| 5 | 2 × 7-day at 90% hatch (June 18) | 5.25 a | 4.00 a | 0.00 a | 0.25 a | 1.00 a | 94.25 a |
| P > Fa | 0.89 | 0.2 | 0.31 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.65 |
aTreatment main effect P-values determined by ANOVA. Means followed by the same letter code(s) are not significantly different.
Colorado potato beetle adults per 10 plants
| Trt | Application | June 4 | June 11 | June 17 | June 24 | July 1 | July 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Schedule | 6 DAA | 13 DAA | 19 DAA | 26 DAA | 33 DAA | 41 DAA |
| 1 | Untreated | 5.25 a | 4.00 a | 0.00 a | 0.00 a | 2.00 a | 91.75 a |
| 2 | 5 × 7-day at colonization (May 29) | 4.75 a | 4.00 a | 0.25 a | 1.25 a | 1.75 a | 75.50 a |
| 3 | 4 × 7-day at 10% hatch (June 4) | 5.25 a | 1.75 a | 0.50 a | 0.25 a | 1.00 a | 78.75 a |
| 4 | 3 × 7-day at 50% hatch (June 11) | 5.25 a | 4.00 a | 0.75 a | 1.00 a | 0.50 a | 56.25 a |
| 5 | 2 × 7-day at 90% hatch (June 18) | 5.25 a | 4.00 a | 0.00 a | 0.25 a | 1.00 a | 94.25 a |
| P > Fa | 0.89 | 0.2 | 0.31 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.65 |
| Trt | Application | June 4 | June 11 | June 17 | June 24 | July 1 | July 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Schedule | 6 DAA | 13 DAA | 19 DAA | 26 DAA | 33 DAA | 41 DAA |
| 1 | Untreated | 5.25 a | 4.00 a | 0.00 a | 0.00 a | 2.00 a | 91.75 a |
| 2 | 5 × 7-day at colonization (May 29) | 4.75 a | 4.00 a | 0.25 a | 1.25 a | 1.75 a | 75.50 a |
| 3 | 4 × 7-day at 10% hatch (June 4) | 5.25 a | 1.75 a | 0.50 a | 0.25 a | 1.00 a | 78.75 a |
| 4 | 3 × 7-day at 50% hatch (June 11) | 5.25 a | 4.00 a | 0.75 a | 1.00 a | 0.50 a | 56.25 a |
| 5 | 2 × 7-day at 90% hatch (June 18) | 5.25 a | 4.00 a | 0.00 a | 0.25 a | 1.00 a | 94.25 a |
| P > Fa | 0.89 | 0.2 | 0.31 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.65 |
aTreatment main effect P-values determined by ANOVA. Means followed by the same letter code(s) are not significantly different.
Colorado potato beetle small larvae per 10 plants
| Trt | Initial | Jun 4 | Jun 11 | Jun 17 | Jun 24 | Jul 1 | Jul 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Application | 6 DAA | 13 DAA | 19 DAA | 26 DAA | 33 DAA | 41 DAA |
| 1 | Untreated | 7.75 a | 110.00 a | 79.50 a | 41.25 a | 2.50 a | 0.00 a |
| 2 | 5 × 7-day at colonization (May 29) | 10.25 a | 97.50 a | 106.50 a | 39.00 a | 3.00 a | 2.00 ab |
| 3 | 4 × 7-day at 10% egg hatch (June 4) | 7.75 a | 100.00 a | 103.75 a | 29.00 a | 1.25 a | 0.00 a |
| 4 | 3 × 7-day at 50% egg hatch (June 11) | 7.75 a | 110.00 a | 92.25 a | 16.00 a | 2.50 a | 6.50 b |
| 5 | 2 × 7-day at 90% egg hatch (June 18) | 7.75 a | 110.00 a | 79.50 a | 39.00 a | 0.00 a | 0.50 a |
| P > Fa | 0.78 | 0.88 | 0.92 | 0.27 | 0.38 | 0.01 |
| Trt | Initial | Jun 4 | Jun 11 | Jun 17 | Jun 24 | Jul 1 | Jul 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Application | 6 DAA | 13 DAA | 19 DAA | 26 DAA | 33 DAA | 41 DAA |
| 1 | Untreated | 7.75 a | 110.00 a | 79.50 a | 41.25 a | 2.50 a | 0.00 a |
| 2 | 5 × 7-day at colonization (May 29) | 10.25 a | 97.50 a | 106.50 a | 39.00 a | 3.00 a | 2.00 ab |
| 3 | 4 × 7-day at 10% egg hatch (June 4) | 7.75 a | 100.00 a | 103.75 a | 29.00 a | 1.25 a | 0.00 a |
| 4 | 3 × 7-day at 50% egg hatch (June 11) | 7.75 a | 110.00 a | 92.25 a | 16.00 a | 2.50 a | 6.50 b |
| 5 | 2 × 7-day at 90% egg hatch (June 18) | 7.75 a | 110.00 a | 79.50 a | 39.00 a | 0.00 a | 0.50 a |
| P > Fa | 0.78 | 0.88 | 0.92 | 0.27 | 0.38 | 0.01 |
aTreatment main effect P-values determined by ANOVA. Means followed by the same letter code(s) are not significantly different.
Colorado potato beetle small larvae per 10 plants
| Trt | Initial | Jun 4 | Jun 11 | Jun 17 | Jun 24 | Jul 1 | Jul 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Application | 6 DAA | 13 DAA | 19 DAA | 26 DAA | 33 DAA | 41 DAA |
| 1 | Untreated | 7.75 a | 110.00 a | 79.50 a | 41.25 a | 2.50 a | 0.00 a |
| 2 | 5 × 7-day at colonization (May 29) | 10.25 a | 97.50 a | 106.50 a | 39.00 a | 3.00 a | 2.00 ab |
| 3 | 4 × 7-day at 10% egg hatch (June 4) | 7.75 a | 100.00 a | 103.75 a | 29.00 a | 1.25 a | 0.00 a |
| 4 | 3 × 7-day at 50% egg hatch (June 11) | 7.75 a | 110.00 a | 92.25 a | 16.00 a | 2.50 a | 6.50 b |
| 5 | 2 × 7-day at 90% egg hatch (June 18) | 7.75 a | 110.00 a | 79.50 a | 39.00 a | 0.00 a | 0.50 a |
| P > Fa | 0.78 | 0.88 | 0.92 | 0.27 | 0.38 | 0.01 |
| Trt | Initial | Jun 4 | Jun 11 | Jun 17 | Jun 24 | Jul 1 | Jul 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Application | 6 DAA | 13 DAA | 19 DAA | 26 DAA | 33 DAA | 41 DAA |
| 1 | Untreated | 7.75 a | 110.00 a | 79.50 a | 41.25 a | 2.50 a | 0.00 a |
| 2 | 5 × 7-day at colonization (May 29) | 10.25 a | 97.50 a | 106.50 a | 39.00 a | 3.00 a | 2.00 ab |
| 3 | 4 × 7-day at 10% egg hatch (June 4) | 7.75 a | 100.00 a | 103.75 a | 29.00 a | 1.25 a | 0.00 a |
| 4 | 3 × 7-day at 50% egg hatch (June 11) | 7.75 a | 110.00 a | 92.25 a | 16.00 a | 2.50 a | 6.50 b |
| 5 | 2 × 7-day at 90% egg hatch (June 18) | 7.75 a | 110.00 a | 79.50 a | 39.00 a | 0.00 a | 0.50 a |
| P > Fa | 0.78 | 0.88 | 0.92 | 0.27 | 0.38 | 0.01 |
aTreatment main effect P-values determined by ANOVA. Means followed by the same letter code(s) are not significantly different.
Colorado potato beetle large larvae per 10 plants
| Trt | Initial | Jun 4 | Jun 11 | Jun 17 | Jun 24 | Jul 1 | Jul 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Application | 6 DAA | 13 DAA | 19 DAA | 26 DAA | 33 DAA | 41 DAA |
| 1 | Untreated | 0.00 a | 0.75 a | 243.00 b | 172.50 a | 44.50 b | 2.50 a |
| 2 | 5 × 7-day at colonization (May 29) | 0.00 a | 0.00 a | 17.75 a | 22.25 a | 1.00 a | 1.50 a |
| 3 | 4 × 7-day at 10% egg hatch (June 4) | 0.00 a | 1.00 a | 18.25 a | 23.25 a | 0.25 a | 0.50 a |
| 4 | 3 × 7-day at 50% egg hatch (June 11) | 0.00 a | 0.75 a | 37.75 a | 23.50 a | 1.25 a | 1.00 a |
| 5 | 2 × 7-day at 90% egg hatch (June 18) | 0.00 a | 0.75 a | 243.00 b | 101.25 a | 0.50 a | 0.75 a |
| P > Fa | 1 | 0.9 | <0.0001 | 0.058 | <0.0001 | 0.75 |
| Trt | Initial | Jun 4 | Jun 11 | Jun 17 | Jun 24 | Jul 1 | Jul 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Application | 6 DAA | 13 DAA | 19 DAA | 26 DAA | 33 DAA | 41 DAA |
| 1 | Untreated | 0.00 a | 0.75 a | 243.00 b | 172.50 a | 44.50 b | 2.50 a |
| 2 | 5 × 7-day at colonization (May 29) | 0.00 a | 0.00 a | 17.75 a | 22.25 a | 1.00 a | 1.50 a |
| 3 | 4 × 7-day at 10% egg hatch (June 4) | 0.00 a | 1.00 a | 18.25 a | 23.25 a | 0.25 a | 0.50 a |
| 4 | 3 × 7-day at 50% egg hatch (June 11) | 0.00 a | 0.75 a | 37.75 a | 23.50 a | 1.25 a | 1.00 a |
| 5 | 2 × 7-day at 90% egg hatch (June 18) | 0.00 a | 0.75 a | 243.00 b | 101.25 a | 0.50 a | 0.75 a |
| P > Fa | 1 | 0.9 | <0.0001 | 0.058 | <0.0001 | 0.75 |
aTreatment main effect P-values determined by ANOVA. Means followed by the same letter code(s) are not significantly different.
Colorado potato beetle large larvae per 10 plants
| Trt | Initial | Jun 4 | Jun 11 | Jun 17 | Jun 24 | Jul 1 | Jul 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Application | 6 DAA | 13 DAA | 19 DAA | 26 DAA | 33 DAA | 41 DAA |
| 1 | Untreated | 0.00 a | 0.75 a | 243.00 b | 172.50 a | 44.50 b | 2.50 a |
| 2 | 5 × 7-day at colonization (May 29) | 0.00 a | 0.00 a | 17.75 a | 22.25 a | 1.00 a | 1.50 a |
| 3 | 4 × 7-day at 10% egg hatch (June 4) | 0.00 a | 1.00 a | 18.25 a | 23.25 a | 0.25 a | 0.50 a |
| 4 | 3 × 7-day at 50% egg hatch (June 11) | 0.00 a | 0.75 a | 37.75 a | 23.50 a | 1.25 a | 1.00 a |
| 5 | 2 × 7-day at 90% egg hatch (June 18) | 0.00 a | 0.75 a | 243.00 b | 101.25 a | 0.50 a | 0.75 a |
| P > Fa | 1 | 0.9 | <0.0001 | 0.058 | <0.0001 | 0.75 |
| Trt | Initial | Jun 4 | Jun 11 | Jun 17 | Jun 24 | Jul 1 | Jul 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Application | 6 DAA | 13 DAA | 19 DAA | 26 DAA | 33 DAA | 41 DAA |
| 1 | Untreated | 0.00 a | 0.75 a | 243.00 b | 172.50 a | 44.50 b | 2.50 a |
| 2 | 5 × 7-day at colonization (May 29) | 0.00 a | 0.00 a | 17.75 a | 22.25 a | 1.00 a | 1.50 a |
| 3 | 4 × 7-day at 10% egg hatch (June 4) | 0.00 a | 1.00 a | 18.25 a | 23.25 a | 0.25 a | 0.50 a |
| 4 | 3 × 7-day at 50% egg hatch (June 11) | 0.00 a | 0.75 a | 37.75 a | 23.50 a | 1.25 a | 1.00 a |
| 5 | 2 × 7-day at 90% egg hatch (June 18) | 0.00 a | 0.75 a | 243.00 b | 101.25 a | 0.50 a | 0.75 a |
| P > Fa | 1 | 0.9 | <0.0001 | 0.058 | <0.0001 | 0.75 |
aTreatment main effect P-values determined by ANOVA. Means followed by the same letter code(s) are not significantly different.
Defoliation estimates
| Trt | Initial | Jun 4 | Jun 11 | Jun 17 | Jun 24 | Jul 1 | Jul 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Application | 6 DAA | 13 DAA | 19 DAA | 26 DAA | 33 DAA | 41 DAA |
| 1 | Untreated | 1.8% a | 2.5% a | 15.0% b | 26.3% b | 46.3% b | 70.0% c |
| 2 | 5 × 7-day at colonization (May 29) | 1.5% a | 1.5% a | 2.3% a | 2.3% a | 2.8% a | 3.3% a |
| 3 | 4 × 7-day at 10% egg hatch (June 4) | 1.8% a | 2.8% a | 3.5% a | 2.0% a | 2.8% a | 3.5% a |
| 4 | 3 × 7-day at 50% egg hatch (June 11) | 1.8% a | 2.5% a | 4.5% a | 1.5% a | 1.8% a | 3.3% a |
| 5 | 2 × 7-day at 90% egg hatch (June 18) | 1.8% a | 2.5% a | 15.0% b | 13.8% b | 6.0% a | 11.3% b |
| P > Fa | 0.99 | 0.21 | 0.0005 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
| Trt | Initial | Jun 4 | Jun 11 | Jun 17 | Jun 24 | Jul 1 | Jul 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Application | 6 DAA | 13 DAA | 19 DAA | 26 DAA | 33 DAA | 41 DAA |
| 1 | Untreated | 1.8% a | 2.5% a | 15.0% b | 26.3% b | 46.3% b | 70.0% c |
| 2 | 5 × 7-day at colonization (May 29) | 1.5% a | 1.5% a | 2.3% a | 2.3% a | 2.8% a | 3.3% a |
| 3 | 4 × 7-day at 10% egg hatch (June 4) | 1.8% a | 2.8% a | 3.5% a | 2.0% a | 2.8% a | 3.5% a |
| 4 | 3 × 7-day at 50% egg hatch (June 11) | 1.8% a | 2.5% a | 4.5% a | 1.5% a | 1.8% a | 3.3% a |
| 5 | 2 × 7-day at 90% egg hatch (June 18) | 1.8% a | 2.5% a | 15.0% b | 13.8% b | 6.0% a | 11.3% b |
| P > Fa | 0.99 | 0.21 | 0.0005 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
aTreatment main effect P-values determined by ANOVA. Means followed by the same letter code(s) are not significantly different.
Defoliation estimates
| Trt | Initial | Jun 4 | Jun 11 | Jun 17 | Jun 24 | Jul 1 | Jul 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Application | 6 DAA | 13 DAA | 19 DAA | 26 DAA | 33 DAA | 41 DAA |
| 1 | Untreated | 1.8% a | 2.5% a | 15.0% b | 26.3% b | 46.3% b | 70.0% c |
| 2 | 5 × 7-day at colonization (May 29) | 1.5% a | 1.5% a | 2.3% a | 2.3% a | 2.8% a | 3.3% a |
| 3 | 4 × 7-day at 10% egg hatch (June 4) | 1.8% a | 2.8% a | 3.5% a | 2.0% a | 2.8% a | 3.5% a |
| 4 | 3 × 7-day at 50% egg hatch (June 11) | 1.8% a | 2.5% a | 4.5% a | 1.5% a | 1.8% a | 3.3% a |
| 5 | 2 × 7-day at 90% egg hatch (June 18) | 1.8% a | 2.5% a | 15.0% b | 13.8% b | 6.0% a | 11.3% b |
| P > Fa | 0.99 | 0.21 | 0.0005 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
| Trt | Initial | Jun 4 | Jun 11 | Jun 17 | Jun 24 | Jul 1 | Jul 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Application | 6 DAA | 13 DAA | 19 DAA | 26 DAA | 33 DAA | 41 DAA |
| 1 | Untreated | 1.8% a | 2.5% a | 15.0% b | 26.3% b | 46.3% b | 70.0% c |
| 2 | 5 × 7-day at colonization (May 29) | 1.5% a | 1.5% a | 2.3% a | 2.3% a | 2.8% a | 3.3% a |
| 3 | 4 × 7-day at 10% egg hatch (June 4) | 1.8% a | 2.8% a | 3.5% a | 2.0% a | 2.8% a | 3.5% a |
| 4 | 3 × 7-day at 50% egg hatch (June 11) | 1.8% a | 2.5% a | 4.5% a | 1.5% a | 1.8% a | 3.3% a |
| 5 | 2 × 7-day at 90% egg hatch (June 18) | 1.8% a | 2.5% a | 15.0% b | 13.8% b | 6.0% a | 11.3% b |
| P > Fa | 0.99 | 0.21 | 0.0005 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 | <0.0001 |
aTreatment main effect P-values determined by ANOVA. Means followed by the same letter code(s) are not significantly different.
Defoliation estimates by evaluation date (lines) and foliar applications (letter codes). Where evaluations and applications coincide, the evaluation was performed first.
Author contributions
Benjamin Bradford (Conceptualization [equal], Data curation [lead], Formal analysis [lead], Funding acquisition [equal], Investigation [equal], Methodology [equal], Project administration [equal], Resources [equal], Software [lead], Supervision [equal], Validation [equal], Visualization [equal], Writing—original draft [lead], Writing—review & editing [equal]), Scott Chapman (Investigation [equal], Methodology [equal], Project administration [equal], Resources [equal], Supervision [equal]), and Russell Groves (Conceptualization [equal], Funding acquisition [equal], Investigation [equal], Methodology [equal], Project administration [equal], Resources [equal], Supervision [equal], Validation [equal], Writing—review & editing [equal])
Conflicts of interest. None declared.
Funding
This research was supported in part by direct industry funding.
