Marination ingredients on meat quality and safety—a review

Abstract

The practice of utilizing various categories of ingredients for marination has been prevalent in both home cooking and the meat industry for an extended period. Meat and meat products treated with various marination ingredients either alone or in combination with multiple marination processes can enhance color, flavor, and tenderness, while also improving their shelf life by reducing the growth of pathogenic microorganisms and lipid oxidation. This narrative review aims to examine all recent scientific literature on various meat and meat products subjected to marination. Through Google Scholar, PubMed, and Web of Science, the review summarizes all recent marinated and marination research articles, including types of marination ingredients, marination method, marinade mechanism, effect on sensory and nutritional quality, safety, shelf life, and health implications, resulting in a comprehensive overview of all information under marinades and marination for all scientists and food sectors concerned. The highlighted information will indicate future directions for the development of marination ingredients in the meat industry.

Introduction

Marination is a meat processing technique involving immersion or incorporation of uncooked or cooked seasoned liquid marinades, which may contain various additives such as acids, enzymes, and spices (Lopes et al., 2022). It is also a technique for tenderizing meat using biological, chemical, and physical methods (Gómez et al., 2020). Marinades are a seasoned or flavored mixture of components that are utilized to improve the color, flavor, texture, palatability, and tenderness of meat and meat products, including but not limited to chicken, fish, beef, pork, pork loin, steaks, chops, and seafood (Baltić et al., 2012; Gómez et al., 2019; Latoch, 2020; Lopes et al., 2022). Over time, a variety of ingredients have been incorporated into marinades, shifting the primary focus from preservation or pickling to tenderization and flavor enhancement (Lopes et al., 2022). Meat is treated with different types of biological marinades, such as kefir, yogurt, butter (Latoch et al., 2019; Latoch, 2020), turmeric, torch ginger, lemongrass, curry leaves (Iqbal et al., 2016), karuk juice (Ozturk and Sengun, 2019), chili, pepper, garlic, and ginger (Gamage et al., 2017). Various chemicals are employed in marination to enhance meat properties, including citric acid, acetic acid, tartaric acid, apple cider vinegar, agraz-verjus wine, sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium nitrite (NaNO₂), and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) (Petracci et al., 2012; Gómez-Salazar et al., 2018; Gómez et al., 2020). Furthermore, physical methods such as ultrasound, tumbling, and gas chromatography have become increasingly prevalent in recent years to aid in meat marination procedures (Kao et al., 2012; Gao et al., 2015; Inguglia et al., 2019).

The ingredients utilized in marinade formulations are critical in achieving the desired sensory properties, such as flavor and texture, that ultimately determine the quality of the end product (Birk et al., 2010). They improve the natural rate of proteolysis in meats by greatly lowering their pH after slaughtering the animal, thereby stimulating enzymatic and proteolytic activities during muscle maturation. They also accelerate the aging of meat by reducing the time required for softening (Gómez et al., 2020). In some examples, the use of different acids helps breakdown the connective tissue of meat, contributing to tenderness, while seasoning and spices add flavor to the meat. Beyond contributing to sensory properties, they have an effective influence on enzymes and inactivation or inhibition of pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms to expand the shelf life of meat. These effects can be associated with compounds, such as polyphenols, organic acids, ethanol, and antimicrobial agents (Latoch, 2020; Lopes et al., 2022).

Numerous scientific studies have demonstrated the important role of marination ingredients, such as polyphenols, in exerting various beneficial activities, including anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-allergic, antithrombotic, hepatoprotective, antiviral, cardioprotective, anticarcinogenic, and vasodilatory effects (Benhammou et al., 2009; Figure 1). For instance, the addition of soy sauce improves physicochemical properties, such as color parameters, textural properties, marination yield, cooking yield, and water-holding capacity the of meat. This is due to the extraction of protein and a decrease in the pH of muscle protein (Kim et al., 2014). Marinade with orange oils and thyme is a superior marinating antibacterial agent that reduces Campylobacter and Salmonella enteritidis, ensuring the meat safety and quality (Thanissery and Smith, 2014). Beer, oregano, parsley, mustard, salt, pepper, garlic, olive oil, vinegar, and fresh onion marinade solutions act as antioxidants in the marination process (Manful et al., 2021). Accordingly, herbs and spices added to the marinades substantially improve meat quality and affect health outcomes by controlling or minimizing lipid oxidation (Istrati et al., 2011).

Currently, marination ingredients are used not only in households but also in various industries and food sectors due to their ability to enhance the flavor and texture of meat. When used at home, meat is simply dipped in marinades, allowing it to passively absorb the marination ingredients. Several marination methods, such as vacuum tumbling, injection, messaging, and immersion, have been used (Lopes et al., 2022). After marination, meat is packaged and stored, half- or well-cooked, and even ready to eat without heat treatment, providing highly valuable quality products. Therefore, marinades during the meat marination process markedly contribute to safety.

The objective of this narrative review is to cover all current scientific research on different types of meat and meat products that have been marinated. The review compiles all marinated and marination research articles from Google Scholar, PubMed and Web of Science, including types of marinade ingredients, marinade methods, marinade mechanisms, effect on sensory and nutritional quality, safety, shelf life, and health implications (Figure 2). It covers all information regarding marination and provides all scientists and food sectors with a thorough overview of all information pertaining to marinades and marination. It has added some details that have not yet been mentioned in any reviews. Future directions for the development of marination components in the meat sector will be indicated by the information in bold.

Types of Marination Ingredients

Marination ingredients have been used to marinate meat for decades, and now they are increasingly being used not only in households but also in the food industry. Traditionally, common marinades used in ancient times were salt, herbs, and spices (Lopes et al., 2022). Various commercially available categories of marinades exist, which incorporate diverse ingredients such as chili powder, garlic, and onion for the purpose of meat marination (Table 1)

Biological marinade

Biological marinades refer to components derived from living organisms or their products that are used in marinating. Biological marinades can be classified into herbs/spices, dairy products/probiotics, and seed/oil-based marinades (Table 1).

Onion, turmeric, lemon grass, garlic, coriander, cinnamon, oregano, parsley, mustard, pepper, rosemary, and lemon juice are the most common herbs/spices used in marination traditionally and in the present day (Farhadian et al., 2012; Kumar et al., 2015; Siroli et al., 2020; Manful et al., 2021). To improve sensory properties (tenderness, juiciness, flavor) and nutritional components (protein, fat, ash, cholesterol content), one of the important functions that marination with herbs/spices fulfills is the reduction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heterocyclic amines (HCAs). PAHs and HCAs are carcinogenic and mutagenic compounds produced by traditional cooking methods, such as smoking, frying/roasting, and grilling/barbecuing, owing to the presence of organic matter. The pathways producing PAHs and HCAs are not sufficiently clear, but some experiments have shown that they occur mainly because of the pyrolysis action of amino acids or proteins when meat and meat products are cooked at >300 °C combustion (Farhadian et al., 2012; Iqbal et al., 2016). Studies on reducing HCAs and PAHs by marinating meat and meat products are limited; very little research has been done to date on the topic. For example, local spices such as torch ginger, curry leaves, lemon grass at a 10% concentration, and turmeric at a 4% concentration are effective at preventing the development of HCAs while deep frying lamb. At well-done cooking, 10% torch ginger produced the greatest drop in 86.6% AαC. The higher production of HCAs is because the low moisture level during frying stimulates the synthesis of HCAs. Additionally, during cooking, the fat is melted out, leaving the meat’s typical precursors—free amino acids, creatine, and sugars—which speed up the production of HCAs (Iqbal et al., 2016). Jinap et al. (2015) reported that torch ginger, lemongrass, turmeric, and curry leaves, among other native species, effectively reduced the quantity of HCAs in grilled beef. Using optimum amounts of the chosen spices, such as 10 g/100 g torch ginger, 4 g/100 g turmeric, lemon grass, and curry leaves, HCAs were reduced from 40 to 85 ng/100 g. In addition, 1.2% lemon juice in the marinating process was also found to reduce PAHs in grilled beef (Farhadian et al., 2012). The researchers did not clearly understand how the marinades inhibited HCAs formation in the samples, but they thought that the antioxidants present in the spices were the possible reasons for preventing the formation of HCAs. Therefore, there are many scopes to investigate this topic more intensively.

Currently, the use of various fermented dairy products and probiotics for marinating meat is popular. While curd is a common item used to marinate meat at home, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) cultures and a mix of a variety of ­probiotics are commercially prepared for this purpose. Yogurt, kefir, and buttermilk are the most commonly used fermented milk products for improving meat quality. Because of the improvement in sensory and nutritional quality, the researchers suggested buttermilk and yogurt as suitable marinades for the meat sector. There is a dearth of research on fermented dairy products, and the authors failed to emphasize how the beneficial bacteria in these products enhance their quality (Latoch and Libera, 2019; Latoch, 2020). The word ‘probiotic’ originated from ‘pro’ (Latin) and ‘bios’ (Greek), and is defined as beneficial microorganisms that have some positive impacts on human health. Bifidobacteria and LAB make up the majority of probiotic properties. These microorganisms, which offer excellent health benefits, particularly to the immune system and gastrointestinal tract, have antimicrobial effects on pathogenic microorganisms for the production of organic acids (Gargi and Sengun, 2021). The incorporation of probiotics (Lactobacillus rhamnosus, L. casei, L. acidophilus, or their combination) improves the sensory and safety qualities of meat during marination. Total phenolic content, total acidity, antimicrobial activities, and antioxidants were in the range of 331.00–513.80 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/L, 0.70–0.92 g tartaric acid/100 mL, 6.50–10.00 mm, and 71.10%–93.37%, respectively. After marination, Salmonella typhimurium, Listeria monocytogenes, and Escherichia coli O157:H7 cultured on the meat samples (approximately 6 log colony-forming units (CFU)/g) decreased to the range of 0.8–2.0, 2.1–3.3, and 0.7–2.7 log CFU/g, respectively. Additionally, marinated samples containing the probiotic L. casei are highly satisfactory in terms of color, appearance, flavor, and acceptability (Gargi and Sengun, 2021). In addition, 0.5% LAB resulted in 74.32% protein, 6.37% fat, 12.51% water, and 1.14% ash composition, and flavor, color, and texture accepted by the panelists on buffalo jerky (Nairfana and Afgani, 2021). L. sakei suppressed mesophilic bacteria by log 1.7 CFU/g and inhibited psychotropic bacteria by log 1.5 CFU/g in marinated beef. L. sakei is an alternative to nisin and an essential intervention for improving the shelf life of marinated meat (Mutegi and Patimakorn, 2020). The researchers of the experiment did not mention the extended days of improved shelf life of marinated meat or the concentration of probiotics that can alter nisin.

Consumer demand for organic products as antimicrobials has increased over the past few years. Various seeds (Plantago) and essential oils (thyme orange, vegetable, juniper, and Citrus limon) are gaining popularity for marinating meat and meat products. These organic compounds can improve the shelf life and quality of meat and other meat products: 0.5% thyme orange essential oil can reduce S. enteritidis by 2.45 log CFU/mL on the breast fillets of broiler chickens and Campylobacter coli by 3.35 log CFU/mL on whole wings (Thanissery and Smith, 2014). From days 6 to 13 of storage, marinated samples with essential oils were subjected to a lower bacterial load of pathogenic microorganisms. Marination inhibited Staphylococcus aureus, L. monocytogenes, and S. enteritidis, thus improving the microbial safety of pork loins (Siroli et al., 2020).

The most effective way to increase the nutritional value, sensory quality, and safety of meat and meat products is through biological marinades. These do not leave any residue on meat. Therefore, biological marinades can be used in the meat industry because they are inexpensive and can reduce health risks.

Chemical marinade

The most common technique in commercial sectors of marinating meat and meat products to add value is the use of different chemical marinades. The highly used chemical marinades in the meat industry are organic acids, soy sauce, sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium biphosphate (NaHCO₃), sodium triphosphate, phosphates, calcium chloride (CaCl₂), ammonium hydroxide (NH₄OH), and wine. Traditionally, marinades contain salt, water, and various acidic components, such as wine, vinegar, and fruit juice. Phosphates and sodium are generally used to enhance the quality and characteristics of meat. Acidic marinating is popular for application in tough meats to improve their tenderness (Kim et al., 2014). Marination in an acidic environment lowers the pH of meat, leading to an improvement in meat tenderness through collagen and myofibrillar solubility and muscle protein swelling (Kim et al., 2014). Similarly, many studies have revealed that acidic marinades, including soy sauce, lactic acid, acetic acid, sodium lactate, and red wine, improve the tenderness of poultry and rabbit meat (Kijowski and Mast, 1993; Chou et al., 1997; Lin et al., 2000; Smaoui et al., 2012; Gómez-Salazar et al., 2018). On the other hand, Gómez-Salazar et al. (2018) observed the opposite result of acid marination with 1.5% citric acid, where meat hardness increased. Aktaş and Kaya (2001) recommended using 1% citric acid for meat marination owing to its acceptable taste and aroma. Although acidic marinades are known to have a tenderizing effect, little information is available in the literature regarding the meat quality of acidic marinades.

Sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, sodium triphosphate, calcium chloride, ammonium hydroxide, and various phosphates play key roles in the subsequent aggregation and denaturation of proteins to improve the water-holding capacity (WHC), acceptable elasticity, and rigidity of meat (Smith and Young, 2007; Naveena et al., 2011; Petracci et al., 2012; Sharedeh et al., 2015; Li et al., 2017). Petracci et al. (2013) recommended not using more than 0.3% sodium bicarbonate in meat marination to improve meat quality. However, sodium bicarbonate harms meat appearance, sensory quality, and shelf life due to increasing pH and darkening effects (Petracci et al., 2012). Further investigation is required to quantify these properties. Komoltri and Pakdeechanuan (2012) suggested that the combination of sodium tripolyphosphate, sodium chloride, and citric acid is the best combination of marinating ingredients for the improvement of the textural quality of meat, which increased the cooking yield to 110.95% and received the highest acceptance. A brine solution containing citrate, sodium tripolyphosphate, and table salt can inhibit the lag phase of Salmonella spp., with sodium citrate being more effective than sodium tripolyphosphate (Tatjana et al., 2015). Naveena et al. (2011) reported that 0.5% ammonium hydroxide is a good marination ingredient to enhance the tenderness and other properties of tough meat, such as buffalo meat. Phosphate is an important marinating agent for cooking purposes because it was observed to increase cook weight from 94.9 to 106.1 g and cook yield from 76.6% to 86.1% in broiler breast meat (Smith and Young, 2007). CaCl₂ treatment in the goose meat marination process for 168 h destroyed the actin filaments, resulting in a direct myofibrillar fraction and tenderization of the meat. CaCl₂ also accelerated the conversion of F-actin to G-actin (Li et al., 2017). By reviewing the literature on chemical marinades, it was found that the ­quality parameters of meat are emphasized more than the safety or microbiological parameters. Therefore, researchers can select safety topics for further investigation related to chemical marinades.

Physical marinades

Marinating meat and meat products is a lengthy process to obtain meat with a certain level of quality and characteristics. In this sense, physical marinades are the types of marinades that do not have the direct function of marination activities but are coupled with other marinades (biological, chemical, and both biological and chemical) to speed up the marination process and enhance the quality and safety of meat. Recently, physical marinades with biological or chemical marinades have gained popularity in the meat industry to surpass the traditional method and accelerate their performance (Ramírez et al., 2021). Emerging technologies, called physical marinades, include pulsed vacuum impregnation, CO₂ micro-perforation, ultrasound treatment, and high-pressure treatment (Alvarado et al., 2017; Gómez-Salazar et al., 2018; Figueroa et al., 2020; Ramírez et al., 2021; Yang et al., 2018).

Physical marinades reduce the processing time, enhance the diffusion rate, accelerate mass transfer, reduce microbial spoilage, reduce lipid oxidation, change fatty acid composition, and improve product quality (tenderness) owing to expansion, compression, and cavitation (González-González et al., 2017; Gómez-Salazar et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2018; Figueroa et al., 2020; Ramírez et al., 2021). The cavitation mechanism can dislodge molecules and facilitate the release of free radicals to optimize the marination process. In addition, it causes the release of some proteolytic enzymes, changes in metabolism, and the release of Ca ions (Demir et al., 2022). Figueroa et al. (2020) found a 47.8% reduction in marination processing after using vacuum impregnation and micro-perforation. Smith (2011) disagreed with the reduction in bacterial count with sonication, and concluded that ultrasound was not as effective in reducing the number of E. coli cells or Salmonella that were inoculated in the meat and indicated the use of a low-power ultrasonic bath, but made no mention of ultrasound power.

The physical marination process lacked an assessment of the microstructural effects using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. Additionally, no increase in shelf life after using these technologies has been mentioned in previous studies.

Nanoparticle marinades

Nanotechnology has evolved as a cutting-edge alternative that is being rapidly used in meat production networks to ensure longer shelf life, increased traceability and safety, and enhanced sensory attributes. It can be defined as an area of technology aimed at detailed nano-sized components mostly <100 nm, which exhibit novel and unique properties. ­Nano-sized particles access and operate more effectively on their targets at very small concentrations, owing to their high surface-to-volume ratio. Nanoparticles have gained popularity in nanotechnology as a clever tool for creating a cost-effective, safer, and more sustainable food system (Yusop et al., 2012b; Lamri et al., 2021). According to recent papers, the inclusion and application of functional and bioactive nanoparticles in meat and meat products have marked a substantial portion of the field of nanotechnology (Lamri et al., 2021).

Meat and meat products are frequently associated with unfavorable health claims. One of the most important challenges is the presence of high saturated fat and cholesterol content. Enhancing the safety of meat and meat products by introducing health-beneficial components and limiting the effect of non-labeled substances is a problem affecting the meat industry (Lamri et al., 2021). Weiss et al. (2010) used plant-based elements such as soy fiber, oat fiber, linseed, apple pulp, citrus fiber, and flaxseed as fat replacement agents to increase the nutritional benefits of meat and meat products by reducing saturated fats and salts. Using nanoparticles to enhance the efficacy of such a substitute and hence improve the antibacterial and antioxidant delivery of the active substances could be a viable option (Ozimek et al., 2010; Lamri et al., 2021). Similarly, Singh et al. (2011) claimed that nanoparticles manufactured using non-chemical materials could aid in the production of cost-effective meat products with natural qualities. In processing, the addition of pepper/paprika nanoparticles to marinated meat and meat products improved marination performance and consumer acceptability. Yusop et al. (2012b) observed better color quality in marinated chicken using paprika oleoresin as a nanoparticle. The effectiveness of nanoparticle color additives in marinating meat and products can be improved by careful selection of the marination ingredients carrier method. Future research incorporating the introduction of functional natural nanoparticle components containing colors, flavors, antioxidants, and antimicrobials will undoubtedly improve the marinating business by increasing the quality of meat through quick marination. Some chemical nanoparticles have been used to improve the shelf quality of meat. ZnO nanoparticles (1–100 nm size) are one of them and have excellent antibacterial properties. The human body degrades ZnO nanoparticles present in food into zinc ions, which do not cause chronic buildup inside the body as silver particles do (Xu et al., 2020). Ali et al. (2021) compared different metal oxide nanoparticles of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs), titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂-NPs), and zinc peroxide nanoparticles (ZnO₂-NPs) against multidrug-resistant strains of S. aureus and concluded that ZnO nanoparticles were the lead material for developing a new antibacterial agent against drug-resistant S. aureus.

Unfortunately, because of a lack of understanding and other restrictions, nanotechnology remains a contentious topic for the general population, one that contains much ambiguity. Accordingly, the value of nanotechnology in the meat industry is mostly determined by the technology’s great economic importance, customer acceptance, and consideration of particular legislation governing its deployment. On the other hand, biological nanoparticles can be used in the meat industry to prioritize human health due to the long-lasting residual effects of chemical nanoparticles (Lamri et al., 2021). Therefore, further research on quality, safety, and consumer health issues should be conducted to build trust in the community.

Methods of Marination

Marination is a well-known procedure for tenderizing meat products and improving their quality. Several innovative strategies have been developed for accelerating marinade transport through meat. Traditionally, marination entails soaking or immersing the meat in the marinade and allowing the flavors to permeate the meat over time. However, this procedure requires a long time to complete, ranging from a few hours to several days. Furthermore, this method does not allow for regular and adequate distribution of substances. Newer marinating procedures such as injection, immersion, and tumbling are being employed to overcome these issues (Gao et al., 2015; Singh et al., 2019).

Injection method

Injection marination is arguably the most extensively used approach because it enables the precise administration of the marinate, ensuring product consistency without time loss during immersion. Probes or needles are placed into a piece of meat and meat products, and the marinate is injected as needles or syringes are withdrawn, dispersing the marinate throughout the item (Alvarado and McKee, 2007; Yusop et al., 2011). In comparison with tumbling (6%), Yusop et al. (2011) found that injecting chicken breast with an immersion approach resulted in up to 8% greater marinate uptake. This was attributable to the mechanical means of injection before meat immersion in the marinades, which may have been linked to increased muscle protein degradation and, thus, increased marinate uptake. These researchers also discovered that despite higher marinate absorption, the injection method could result in greater cooking loss. The injection procedure may potentially create holes inside the meat, allowing leaks during cooking, leading to lower WHC and more cooking and purge loss (Yusop et al., 2012a). Alvarado and Sams (2003) highlighted the opposite fact that no variations were found in marinade uptake or retention between the pale and normal fillets during tumbling or injection when the pH was 11 with phosphate or salt marinate. They carried out their experiment in an alkaline environment, allowing for further research on an acidic environment.

Only the parameters of retention time, marinade uptake, and cooking loss were shown in research articles for this method. It is possible to perform extensive research to identify any changes in the sensory, nutritional, biochemical, and safety components of meat and meat products. Comparisons between the immersion, injection, and tumbling methods in various meats and meat products are also necessary.

Immersion method

Immersion is a traditional technique that involves soaking the meat in marinate and permitting the seasonings to infiltrate the meat over time by diffusion. It is also the most cost-effective marinating approach and requires no special equipment. This involves submerging the substrates in an aqueous solution and enabling the meat to penetrate through diffusion over time, typically 8–12 h (Yusop et al., 2010). This approach is inefficient for the meat industry because it lacks consistency in ingredient dispersion and is impractical because it requires extensive processing time and restricts the amount of marinade that can be added (Alvarado and McKee, 2007). However, this difficulty can be rectified by infusing tenderizing substances, such as enzymes and acids, into marinades (Yusop et al., 2011). Gamage et al. (2017) reported that marinating boneless and skinless chicken thighs for 8 h enhances cooking yield, WHC, pH, and meat softness while reducing drip loss, cooking loss, and shearing force values. Immersion-marinated chicken thigh flesh contributes the most to the improvement of the physiochemical parameters examined compared to injection and tumbling procedures. The findings of sensory analysis, however, indicated that the panelists favored meat that had been marinated using the injection method for 8 h. In contrast, Carroll and Alvarado (2008) revealed that the immersion technique lowered pH, color, and marinade uptake. Researchers did not highlight the tenderness of meat using the method. They have the opportunity to assess this parameter combined with different marinades. Moreover, much research has been carried out to determine the effects of various marinade solutions on the sensory and morphological traits of various meat types, including pork, beef, horse, and chicken meat. However, there have only been a few studies performed to optimize marination methods, which require investigation.

Tumbling method

Tumbling is a mechanical process in which meat rotates, falls, and contacts the interior walls and blades of a barrel. Kim et al. (2012) defined it as a rigorous physical and mechanical system that occurs in baffled whirling drums. Meat pieces are scooped up mostly by barriers and placed into the drum during this operation. Baffles generate gravity, intense friction, pressure, and extruded forces that are transmitted to muscle pieces, leading to meat distortion (Arnau et al., 2007). The weakening and fracturing of the tissue structures lead to an increase in brine adsorption and protein separation, as well as an improvement in the cooking yield. Tumbling also ensures that the color of cured meat is consistent (Singh et al., 2019). Tumbling, in conjunction with specific additives, has been shown to minimize the lipid oxidation rate in meat (Cheng and Ockerman, 2003). Vacuum tumbling in chicken legs and breast meat for 2 h led to a marked increase in WHC, marinate pickup, cooking yield, ash, moisture content, as well as a notable reduction in chewiness, hardness, gumminess, and shear force values. Up to the 12th day after refrigeration, all items were microbially safe (Singh et al., 2019). The study is useful to meat manufacturers because vacuum tumbling (2 h with marinade) can be utilized instead of conventional marination for generating marinated meat products. It is interesting to note that they analyzed nutritional components and found higher protein and lower fat levels in this marination method.

Mechanism of Marinades During Marination

The use of a marinade as an effective preservative in marination is the oldest and most common practice in the meat industry. Marinades enhance flavor, retain moisture, improve texture, inhibit bacterial growth, and improve the yield of the end products (Komoltri and Pakdeechanuan, 2012). They are applied continuously in the meat sector because they dissolve easily in water and the ionic strength of water increases rapidly. Various types of meat have approximately 70% moisture, whereas the fluid of the muscle tissue has lower ionic strength than the marinade solution. The marinade solution is readily absorbed by meat and meat products by osmotic processes until equilibrium is reached (Alvarado and McKee, 2007; Figure 3). Functional components from plants and animals, including additives, are used in marination to achieve a variety of functionalities in the end products. The main functionalities achieved by the functional ­ingredients of marinades are their binding properties (improved adhesion properties among meats and meat parts), texture modification (improved tenderness), fat, and WHC. In addition, they reduce formulation costs by adding water to meat and meat products, increasing processing yields, or allowing ­inexpensive raw meat sources to be used in different product formulations (Petracci et al., 2014).

Myofibrillar proteins are primarily responsible for the textural properties and WHC of meat and meat products. They can determine how efficiently marinades could improve meat characteristics. Actin (thin filament) and myosin (thick filament) within myofibrillar proteins contribute the most to the formulation of suitable gel properties in meat and meat products. In myosin, gelatin leads to the development of a three-dimensional network structure of actomyosin that holds water in a less-mobile condition. Moreover, electrostatic repulsion increases the distance between the thick and thin filaments, exposing charged sites for water to bind. Increasing the space between filaments increases the amount of water retained by the muscle. The occupied water in this space is called free water and is held by the steric effect. In addition, this forces the marinades/water to penetrate the sarcolemma, causing myofibrils to swell and leading to the solubilization and extraction of myofibrillar proteins. These solubilized myofibrillar proteins consequently mix with the sarcoplasmic fluid, which is soluble in water, increasing the concentration of protein, which creates a matrix of proteins to trap the water. It also helps form a viscous coating on the surface of the products, which acts as a protective shield to prevent water/marinade from escaping from the inside of the meat, particularly during the holding period. The free water constituting the majority of the water is retained by meat. In addition, marination related to soaking marinade solution in meat improves flavor and aroma. First, salt draws the liquid out of the meat through osmosis. Then, the marinade solution is absorbed by the meat while the muscle structure is broken down. The solution pulls water-soluble flavors such as garlic and onion below the meat surface. Oils also assist in transferring different types of fat-soluble flavors from a variety of seasonings, such as chilies, herbs, and some spices, onto the meat surface (Alvarado and McKee, 2007; Sun and Holley, 2011; Yusop et al., 2011; Petracci et al., 2014; Gómez et al., 2020).

There are no studies on how the marinades act on color, nutrition, or biological components during marination; therefore, new research should be established on this topic.

Effects of Marination on Meat and Meat Products Quality

The use of marinades in meat marination has considerable effects on meat quality. Table 2 shows a recent publication highlighting the effects of marinades on meat quality.

Effect on sensory parameters

Flavor

Flavors are essential sensory attributes of meat that can have a strong impact on consumer acceptability and meat selection (Saha et al., 2009). Incorporating seasonings and flavorings into the marination process is one strategy to address consumer desire for diversity, new flavors, spiciness, and excellent presentation while also facilitating the creation of value addition in products. Flavoring and spices added during marination improve the flavor of meat products by increasing basic flavor, restoring flavor lost during processing, generating a distinctive flavor profile, suppressing and neutralizing overheated excessive flavor (Yusop et al., 2011). Nairfana and Afgani (2021) emphasized the importance of LAB, which affects the flavor of jerky; with more LAB added, the panelists could detect the more acidic flavor. Lactic acid fermentation is still one of the most popular methods for preserving and processing foods because it is inexpensive, requires little energy, and produces a wide range of flavors. Lactic acid production has a direct impact on sensory product quality by imparting a mildly acidic flavor and facilitating curing, which requires a pH drop. Furthermore, the synthesis of minor amounts of ethanol, acetic acid, acetoin, carbon dioxide, and pyruvic acid, and their propensity to trigger the synthesis of aromatic compounds influence the sensory qualities of fermented buffalo jerky. Saha et al. (2009) reported that less than 21% of consumers disliked the flavor of pre-rigor boneless broiler breast meat marinated with 1% NaCl salt, but they were concerned that utilizing a 1% concentration of salt may cause customers to dislike the product, particularly if other additives or salt, or even both, are used during final product processing. In conclusion, further investigation is necessary to assess and compare customer perception (flavor) of marinating chicken breast meat at various salt levels.

It should be noted that the flavor of meat and meat products is enhanced after biological marination. The majority of the experiments yielded this conclusion; however, relatively few studies have been performed on the enhancement of ­flavor using chemical marinade and various marination techniques. Future research can examine how a chemical marinade affects flavor.

Color

Meat color is one of the most crucial qualitative characteristics that influences consumer acceptability and is a critical indicator of meat used in culinary and related industries (Latoch, 2020). Latoch et al. (2019) and Latoch (2020) experimented with similar dairy products (kefir, yogurt, and buttermilk) and found that the marinade type and temperature of sous vide cooking had no effect on yellowness and lightness but increased redness. Fermented milk products limit myoglobin oxidation, increase thermal stability, reduce redness reduction and minimize variations in redness. The researchers did not investigate the microbiological characteristics, sensory attributes, or oxidation processes. Therefore, more studies should address these parameters under the influence of dairy products. More research is needed to optimize meat marination in yogurt and buttermilk, as well as the sous vide factor decision (Latoch and Libera, 2019; Latoch, 2020). Ozturk and Sengun (2019) used marination solutions to marinate meat samples. Marination liquids containing two different quantities of koruk juice (25% and 50%) or dried koruk pomace (1% and 2%) were prepared independently with or without components (1% salt and 0.1% thyme). Although marinating with koruk products had a detrimental effect on meat color, there was no significant difference between the colors of marinated and non-marinated samples after cooking (P>0.05). In this study, the most admired sample was marinated meat with 50% koruk juice, whereas the least admired sample was marinated meat with 2% dried koruk pomace. Additional research is required to determine the effects of marination liquid made with various koruk products on different types of meat. According to Gómez et al. (2019), ready-to-eat (RTE) items made from meat analogs and beef that had been marinated (beer and teriyaki) were sous vide cooked at different temperatures (70 °C and 80 °C) and times (60, 90, and 120 min for beef and 90, 120, and 150 min for beef analog). In terms of lightness, the interaction between cooking temperature and marinade type had a considerable effect on beef samples. On the other hand, the samples marinated in beer had lower b* and C* values (chroma) than the samples marinated in teriyaki, while meat analogs dipped in teriyaki had lower a* values. The type of marinade has an impact on color saturation. Furthermore, the study’s researchers emphasized that meat analog products are a viable substitute for meat products and new business opportunities for their use in the development of RTE products. Gómez-Salazar et al. (2018) experimented with the addition of NaCl to the marinating solution and the use of ultrasonography (US), where the color parameters L* and a* increased. The L* values, which ranged from 41.87 to 67.56, increased as the NaCl concentration in the marinating solution and the US application increased. When the concentration of NaCl was increased and US was applied, the a* values (from 0.90 to 5.51) declined. Cavitation can cause changes in the color characteristics of rabbit meat samples. This process produces free radicals and causes lipid or protein oxidation during US treatment. Kim et al. (2014) marinated chicken breast in soy sauce, which displayed less lightness and more yellowness and redness because of the coloration of the soy sauce.

Petracci et al. (2012) used three types of marinade solutions: 7.7% NaCl (S), 2.3% Na₄O₇P₂ (P), and 2.3% NaHCO₃ (B). Except for the P samples, all samples showed a darker color following marination compared to the controls. The deepest color was observed in samples marinated with a combination of salts (SP, SB, and SPB). In terms of cooked meat color, the marinated samples with component combinations were darker than the controls, although the brightness of the S, P, and B groups did not differ from that of the controls. Marination appears to have some effect on redness and yellowness; however, these effects are not always constant or striking. Mozuriene et al. (2016) fermented potato tuber juice with Pediococcus pentosaceus KTU05-9, P. acidilactici KTU05-7, and L. sakei KTU05-6 and used the fermented product to marinate pork meat for 24 h. Compared to the control, pork samples had L* values ranging from 3.5% (ham) to 21.4% (loin). The a* values increased from 3.2% to 33.8% after marination (both Pediococcus) and from 1.4% to 24.0% (L. sakei) when compared with the control and had an impact on the yellowness of meat samples: a 4.4% decrease in b* values (M. longissimus dorsi) and 7.2% decrease in b* values (M. longissimus dorsi). Gargi and Sengun (2021) found that L. sakei was the preferred inoculant in the meat marination process. In a study by Siroli et al. (2020), non-marinated samples had considerably higher a* values after 9 d and 15 d of storage; however, these changes were not statistically significant. The marination treatment, on the other hand, had a substantial effect on yellowness (b*): at each storage duration, both marinated and marinated with essential oils had considerably higher b* values than the control. Santos et al. (2020) used dehydrated pineapple by-products enriched in bromelain with hydrostatic pressure treatment (225 MPa, 8.5 min) to marinate beef samples. Marination (12–24 h) and bromelain concentrations (10–20 mg tyrosine/100 g meat) enhanced marination yield and produced a brighter color in the meat samples. Rajagopal et al. (2015) used CaCl₂ to marinate buffalo longissimus thoracis muscle at 2–4 °C for 8 d and concluded that from the first day on, aging improved fresh meat color. However, marination with CaCl₂ did not affect the color features of aged meat, as determined by the Hunter L, a, and b values in buffalo steaks.

Water-holding capacity

WHC is another essential measure of meat quality. WHC is significantly influenced by pH, marinating method, and marinade type. Gamage et al. (2017) marinated 32-year-old broiler meat in a commercial marinade containing pepper, chili, garlic, nutmeg, ginger, and salt for 4, 8, and 12 h at 4 °C using four marination methods (unmarinated control, immersion, injection, and tumbling). Preserving marinated chicken thigh flesh for 8 h enhanced the WHC. Although a fixed amount of marinating mixture was immediately injected into the samples during the injection process, thigh meat marinated by injection had a lower WHC than that seasoned by tumbling. The reason for the low WHC found in meat marinating for 4 h and 8 h is unknown. One explanation is that the injection method caused excessive moisture loss related to pores in the flesh surface produced during the injection method. Gómez-Salazar et al. (2018) observed diminished WHC as the concentration of NaCl in the marinating solutions increased and when US was used. WHC reduction was greater in the treated samples without US (overall mean WHC reduction of 8.1%) than in samples treated with US (mean of 6.2%). In the US, the highest water loss was observed at a NaCl concentration of 200 g/L. These findings were linked to the powerful cavitation phenomena created by US, which causes cell rupture and thus a greater migration of moisture from the tissues. Singh et al. (2019) pointed out that chicken meat marinated with red beetroot juice had no marked effect on WHC, but vacuum tumbling for 2 h increased the WHC in breast meat due to its higher protein content than leg meat. To evaluate WHC with other marination techniques and their causes, researchers may undertake specific experiments.

Kim et al. (2014) used soy sauce to marinate chicken breast and reported that a decrease in pH had no effect on WHC because of the enhanced solubility of collagen. Similarly, Rajagopal et al. (2015) found that buffalo meat marinated with CaCl₂ had no impact on the WHC. In contrast, Rostamani et al. (2021) noticed that pH negatively affected WHC in beef samples.

Salma et al. (2016) utilized nanocellulose and cellulose from pomelo (Citrus grandis) albedo as water-binding agents in a meat marinating system. The cellulose used during marination without salt improved the WHC by 65.14%, which is much greater than that of nanocellulose (63.28%). Moreover, salt intake enhanced the WHC by approximately 10%–15%, with commercialized cellulose samples scoring the highest, followed by extracted cellulose samples with 81.34% and 78.70%, respectively. Komoltri and Pakdeechanuan (2012) found that the ideal marinating method for golek chicken was discovered to be a mixture of sodium chloride, sodium tripolyphosphate, and citric acid at 4 °C for 2 h, which had the highest WHC. Therefore, salt is an important factor in the WHC in these studies.

Many researchers have seen an increase in WHC after using LAB and probiotics. Mozuriene et al. (2016) fermented pork meat with LAB for 24 h and observed lower WHC in marinated L. sakei samples. Mazaheri Kalahrodi et al. (2021) and Nairfana and Afgani (2021) observed improved WHC in meat samples using fermented bacteria.

Marination time is also an indicator factor for assessing WHC, and Rostamani et al. (2021) reported an improved WHC at a faster rate as the marination time advanced. The mean WHC values of 30.8%, 32.4%, and 35.6% were ascribed to 0, 3, and 24 h of storage, respectively.

Tenderness

The organoleptic and qualitative features of meat and meat products are highly influenced by tenderness (Rostamani et al., 2021). Tenderness is a critical component of eating quality. Changes in tenderness influence consumers’ repurchase decisions, and they are willing to spend more money on tender and juicy meat (Naveena et al., 2011; Zou et al., 2019). Marinades intensively affect the juiciness and tenderness of meat and meat products. Mozuriene et al. (2016) found that P. acidilactici KTU05-7 and P. pentosaceus KTU05-9 were the most favorable bacteria for the fermentation of potato juice, and such fermented products could be suggested for the marination of pork meat to increase tenderness. Zou et al. (2019) reported that a low-concentration of sodium bicarbonate (0.2 mmol/L) solution and ultrasound (20 kHz and 350 W) enhanced the tenderness of chicken breast meat. Rostamani et al. (2021) highlighted that a short marination duration of 24 h can achieve a high degree of moisture ­retention and a lower level of necessary shear force, resulting in high tenderness and customer approval. Mazaheri et al. (2021) found the highest tenderness in beefsteaks by using 25% asparagus juice and juice with 10% balsamic vinegar. In summary, a marinade solution combining balsamic vinegar and asparagus juice could be used in sauces and spices to boost tenderness in tough beefsteaks. Naveena et al. (2011) reported that the tenderness of tough buffalo meat could be improved by marinating it with 0.5% ammonium hydroxide solution. Rajagopal et al. (2015) observed that post-rigor seasoning of buffalo longissimus thoracis steaks with 200 mmol/L CaCl₂ (5%, mass fraction) represents a potential measure, as evidenced by the marked improvement in tenderness. Tenderness increased by 53.4% in seasoned steaks compared with 35.5% in unmarinated steaks. The action of calpains 1 and 2 by calcium ions, as well as the proteolysis of calpastatin at 2–4 °C, could cause an improvement in tenderness. Researchers are exploring the use of acidic marination to improve the texture of meat products. The use of fermented dairy products (FDP) as a meat marinade is, nevertheless, surprisingly uncommon. Latoch (2020) discovered that marinating meat in fermented milk products reduced the toughness of steaks. The lowest hardness was observed in the steaks marinated in yogurt and buttermilk for 6 or 9 d and sous vide boiled at 60 °C. The reduction of hardness in pork loin after marinating in buttermilk or yogurt was also discovered by Latoch and colleagues in 2019 (Latoch et al., 2019). Ozturk and Sengun (2019) showed meat samples seasoned in 50% koruk juice with 0.1% thyme and 1% salt for 48 h were the most favorable in tenderness. Inguglia et al. (2019) concluded that the substitution of potassium chloride with sodium chloride in marinated rabbit meat by up to 50% did not affect tenderness. Komoltri and Pakdeechanuan (2012) reported that the best marinating treatment for golek chicken was determined to be a combination of 5% NaCl, 1% sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) , and 0.02% citric acid at 4 °C for 2 h, yielding a highly soft texture. Ismail et al. (2018b) found that using 60% red dates was the most effective method for tenderizing beef. Aktaş and Kaya (2001) observed a minor increase in beef tenderness after marinating meat with weak organic acids. Vişan et al. (2021) used cold-pressed oils, and aromatic herbs were shown to be effective in improving the tenderness of black Angus beef meat after long-term marination.

Effect on nutritional quality

Marination has a significant impact on nutritional composition; however, research in this area is progressing. Cho and Choi (2021) evaluated marinated chicken breast and leg with bay leaf extracts using high-frequency thawing and a super-heated stream at 225 °C for 12 min 20 s and 223 °C for 8 min 40 s. Despite finding a balanced polyunsaturated and saturated fatty acid profile as well as greater fat, protein, calories, and cholesterol, the findings were primarily focused on the nutritional composition of different regions of the chicken body. On the other hand, yogurt, kefir, and buttermilk did not impact the protein or moisture of the marinated pork loin, but they significantly reduced the amount of fat that was produced as a result of fat oxidation, according to the research of Latoch et al. (2019). Arcanjo et al. (2019) marinated beef in red wine extracts, which resulted in a liquid absorption of approximately 1% on average, with no considerable changes among treatments. The treatments did not influence the ­proximate composition of the muscles, and all of them had statistically identical levels of moisture (77.5%), ash (1.1%), proteins (16.5%), and total lipids (2.9%). In contrast, the ash, moisture, and protein levels of marinated leg and breast meat with red beetroot juice prepared using vacuum tumbling were considerably higher than those of the respective controls. Marinade and vacuum tumbling improved marinade uptake, resulting in higher ash and moisture contents than in the control meats (Singh et al., 2019). Nairfana and Afgani (2021) found an increase in protein content from 62.36% to 82.21% and a reduction in fat from 6.61% to 5.11% in buffalo jerky marinated with 0.5% LAB for 12 h. Kumar et al. (2015) noticed that the lemon-marinated (LM) and ginger-marinated (GM) chicken tikkas had lower protein, fat, and ash levels than the control. Protein values in the LM, GM, and control groups were 28.1%, 28.3%, and 32%, respectively. Fat was found in the LM (6.7%), GM (7.1%), and control groups (10.1%). The ash levels in the LM, GM, and control groups were 1.6%, 1.8%, and 2.4%, respectively. The washout of sarcoplasmic fluids in the marinades was the cause of the lowering of these nutrients in the marinated solutions.

The nutritional parameters were analyzed mainly in biological marinade experiments, and the results differed according to the different marinades.

Meat safety

Alongside improving meat quality, marinades are advantageous for the safety of human health regarding a variety of health issues. They have vastly variable modes of action that benefit people (see Figure 2). Table 2 shows a recent publication highlighting the effects of marinades on meat safety. Meat and meat products are an essential part of human nutrition, as they contain rich nutrients such as fatty acids, proteins, bioactive components, minerals, and vitamins. These products can be easily spoiled by various microorganisms and pathogenic bacteria, which have a high risk of contamination, such as E. coli O157:H7, S. typhimurium, and L. monocytogenes, which can cause foodborne diseases (Ozturk and Sengun, 2019). Marinades during marination contribute to reducing microbial activity in meat and meat products. The main antimicrobial action can be exerted by the reduction in pH, as well as the production of diverse antimicrobial substances, such as bacteriocins, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen peroxide (Figure 4). The activity of the antimicrobial components occurs gradually through the adsorption system on the cell wall, then migrates through the cell membrane, and finally, the action occurs in the cytoplasm (Mutegi and Patimakorn, 2020). Marinades reduce the pH of marinated products, which ruptures the cell walls of microorganisms, reducing the survival of bacteria, retarding their growth, and killing them. In addition, the antimicrobial activity of marinades may be due to the reduction in chelate cations, which are essential for the growth of microorganisms (Tatjana et al., 2015; Noshad et al., 2021). Marinades reduce the susceptibility of microorganisms by preventing hydrophobic substances from passing through their membranes (Yeganegi et al., 2018; Noshad et al., 2021). Antimicrobial activity may also occur due to the presence of acid, limonene, and phenolic compounds that lyse bacterial cells and destroy their functions (Han et al., 2019; Liu et al., 2020; Noshad et al., 2021).

Salmonella, E. coli, L. monocytogenes, Campylobacter, and Vibrio spp. are the most prevalent bacteria that cause microbial attacks on meat and meat products. Salmonella, one of the major contamination concerns, has been observed in a minority of seafood (12.5%), followed by chicken (25%), and beef (62.5%) (Lopes et al., 2022).

Biological marinades are vital for meat safety, and many studies have been undertaken using natural marinating substances to minimize microbiological contamination. When lime juice was used (pH 2.5) in the marination of tilapia fillet pieces injected with 7 log CFU/g Salmonella for 120 min at 4 °C and 25 °C, a reduction in the bacterial counts was observed. Marinating the ready-to-cook meat in a commercial marinade containing curry, mango, and other elements (glucose–fructose, garlic, onion, salt, vinegar, canola oil, and water) with a pH between 3 and 4 under vacuum packaging markedly decreased E. coli on days 3, 7, and 14, respectively, from 2.26, 3.43, and 2.75 log CFU/g for the untreated meat to 1.80, 1.90, and 1.89 log CFU/g, respectively (Ben et al., 2016). Ozturk and Sengun (2019) observed the eradication of food-borne pathogens E. coli O157:H7, S. typhimurium, and L. monocytogenes by koruk juice (50%) and dried koruk pomace (2%). The use of koruk marination can render these meats fully safe, particularly in the case of low levels of contamination (3 log). Schirmer et al. (2009) used 6% (mass fraction) marination ingredients (black pepper, paprika, garlic, basil, white pepper, onion, allspice, curry, celery seed, caraway seed, vegetable oil, vegetable fat, coriander, and yeast extract) in pork steak for 9 d at 4 °C, and L. algidus was observed in the samples. This is an underappreciated spoilage bacterium that requires extra attention in regard to rotting vacuum-packed meat. More research should be focused on the bacteria that survive the marination of meat and meat products in packaging. The total viable count (TVC) of beef was inhibited by all marinades. The greatest beneficial effect of wine marination on TVC was observed at 5 d, when the marinated groups showed a considerable reduction in TVC of up to 1.4 log CFU/g when compared to the control group. LAB and Enterobacteriaceae grew at a slower rate than TVC (Arcanjo et al., 2019).

There is not enough information available about the use of chemical marinades and marinating methods in meat and meat products for microbial analysis. As a result, there is a significant opportunity to perform research on the effect of chemical compounds and different marination methods on the safety of meat and meat products.

Shelf life of meat

All kinds of meats are extremely perishable. The prevalence of pathogenic and spoilage bacteria on the exterior surface of meat may affect the shelf life of meat products. Meat (both cooked and raw) may undergo lipid oxidation, resulting in a reduction in shelf life (Noshad et al., 2021). Therefore, global demand for marinated products has increased over the years. Prolonged shelf life is one of the key reasons for this (Siroli et al., 2020). Marinade solutions prepared with natural ingredients (e.g., essential oils, herbs, and spices) can improve the shelf life of meat because of their antimicrobial effects on spoilage, pathogens, and microorganisms and their antioxidant properties in meat and meat products (Karam et al., 2019; Siroli et al., 2020).

In buffalo meat, C. limon essential oil and Plantago major seed mucilage successfully improved shelf life by reducing hardness loss, lipid oxidation, and microbiological development (Noshad et al., 2021). Karam et al. (2019) applied carvacrol (0.4%) and thymol (0.8%) v/w to the fresh meat of chickens using vacuum packaging at 4 °C for 21 d, resulting in a considerable sensory shelf-life extension of 15 d and >21 d, respectively. The addition of marination to a commercial marinade containing curry, mango, and other elements (glucose–fructose, garlic, onion, salt, vinegar, canola oil, and water) at a pH between 3 and 4, along with a combination of irradiation (1.5 kGy) and vacuum packaging, extended the shelf life by 9 d more than untreated meat (Ben Fadhel et al., 2016).

A large number of studies failed to underline the importance of shelf life after using various types of marinating ingredients on meat and meat products. These data are critical for manufacturers and the meat industry because they add value to their products. Researchers should concentrate on this parameter to include in their studies.

Effects on Human Health

Marinades contain a variety of functional compounds that are important for human health. The bioactive components of marinades exhibit antioxidant activity by neutralizing free radicals, donating electrons, and transferring hydrogen atoms (Noshad et al., 2021). Another reason may be that some marinades, such as fermented dairy products and probiotics, have the ability of antioxidation by reducing the risks of reactive oxygen. They breakdown hydrogen peroxide and peroxide anions. It significantly slows down the reaction rate of lipid oxidation (lowering the value of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances), includes fewer oxidizing agents (having a low redox potential value), and successfully eliminates psychotropic and mesophilic oxygen bacteria. Moreover, several marinades with peptides can hydrolyze chelating compounds, increase the stability of oxygen, and inhibit malonic aldehyde production (Latoch and Libera, 2019). Phospholipases are important enzymes involved in lipid oxidation. The release of lysosomes from marinades is hypothesized to inactivate phospholipase activity (Yang et al., 2018).

Fat and cholesterol levels underlie the quality of meat and meat products. The concept of quality in meat and meat products is dynamic and changes according to the needs of consumers with respect to the desire for greater convenience and concerns about health status. Consumers are aware of diet-related issues and are striving to reform their diets to reap health benefits. Therefore, marinating ingredients should be used on meat and meat products because they lower cholesterol levels by reducing the fat content in meat (Kumar et al., 2015).

Marinade solutions high in phenolic chemicals lower peroxide values, reduce secondary lipid oxidation products and keep 2-thiobarbituric acid reactive substances nearly unaltered during storage. After cooking, red wine reduced the formation of conjugated dienes by 20%. The inclusion of mild organic acids (such as lemon juice) reduced PAH synthesis in meat by 70%, whereas polyphenolic antioxidants inhibited HCA development by 75%–100%, indicating that marination has a positive effect on human health (Vlahova-Vangelova and Dragoev, 2014).

Conclusions

The present review was able to provide all the information regarding marinades and marination for researchers, academics, and people in the food industry. From this review, biological marinades were credited with being important in all aspects of meat-marinating parameters, including meat safety, shelf life, and human health concerns. Other forms of marinades and marinating processes lack shelf life and human-related parameters (lipid oxidation, 2-thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, carcinogenic and mutagenic compounds), which should be taken seriously by researchers. Additionally, some cutting-edge techniques are becoming popular that surpass the conventional approach and boost performance, including pulsed vacuum impregnation, CO₂ micro-perforation, ultrasound treatment, and high-pressure treatment. With some exceptions, these technologies have limited impact on sensory and microbiological analysis. Some experiments have also shown contradictions in flavor, color, WHC, and tenderness with different types of marinades and marinating methods. On the other hand, a common marination technique, tumbling, is quite effective in the meat industry to reduce marination time and improve the color, flavor, and texture of meat. There have been no studies regarding the way marinades affect color, nutrition, or biological components during marination; thus, further study should be conducted in this mechanism area.

Consumer demand for organic products as antimicrobials in the meat marination process has been increasing over the years. As a result, emphasis should be placed on locally available, low-cost natural components. Moreover, nanotechnology has evolved as a cutting-edge alternative that is being rapidly used in meat production networks to ensure longer shelf life, increased traceability and safety, and enhanced sensory attributes. Many researchers have emphasized plant-based nanoparticles such as soy fiber, oat fiber, linseed, apple pulp, citrus fiber, pepper/paprika, and flaxseed to enhance the efficacy of the products and hence improve antibacterial and antioxidant delivery. Although nanotechnology in meat marination is a recent invention, more research is required on the use of bioactive and green-synthesized nanoparticles to increase consumer acceptance.

Funding

This research was supported by a grant from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. U2003117), the Talented Young Scientist Program from MOST (Bangladesh-19-002), the Yantai City Campus Integration Development Project (No. 2021XDRHXMQT34), and the Project of Dairy Industry of Weifang (No. H20230002), China.

Author Contributions

Syed Md. Ehsanur Rahmana: Conceptualization, writing original draft. Sharmeen Islama: Data curation, review and editing. Junyu Pan: Investigation. Dewei Kong: Investigation, review and editing. Qian Xi: Investigation, data curation. Qijing Du: Review and editing. Yongxin Yang: Review and editing. Jun Wang: Conceptualization, review and editing, validation, funding acquisition, supervision. Deog-Hwan Oh: Review and editing, supervision. Rongwei Han: Investigation, funding acquisition, supervision.

Conflict of Interest

There is no conflict of interest.

References

Author notes